GIFT  OF 


T. 


f-T^ 


Theories  of  Energy 


By 

Horace  Perry 


If  we  would  understand  all  things, 
we  must  understand  energy,  for 
energy  is  the  cause  of  all  things. 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  and  London 

£be  Imicfcerbocfcer   press 

1918 


COPYRIGHT.  1918 

BY 

HORACE  PERRY 


Ube  ftntcftetbochec  press,  View  H?orh 


PREFACE 

IV /IORE  than  twenty  years  ago  I  began  a 
*  *  *  study  of  energy,  and  in  pursuing  the 
subject  I  have  been  led  into  many  branches 
of  science,  into  all  those  sciences  concerning 
natural  phenomena  and  the  processes  of 
nature,  and  I  have  studied  these  things  with 
the  idea  that  energy  is  the  cause  ever  present 
in  my  mind,  and  have  ever  sought  to  under- 
stand how  the  cause  produces  the  effects. 

My  purpose  has  been  to  learn,  if  possible, 
something  of  the  nature  of  energy  and  of  the 
method  in  which  it  acts  in  matter,  and  after 
all  these  years  of  study  I  feel  confident,  in 
the  light  of  the  knowledge  I  have  gained, 
that  my  labour  has  not  been  in  vain. 

Of  one  thing  at  least  I  am  certain,  and  that 
is  that  all  atomic  matter  is  perpetually  ener- 
get'c  within  itself,  and  that  the  energetic 

iii 


371046 


iv  Preface 

condition  of  each  part  is  affected  by  the 
energy  of  other  parts. 

On  no  other  hypothesis  can  the  phenomena 
and  processes  of  nature  be  explained,  and 
when  we  have  come  to  a  realization  of  the 
truth  of  this  hypothesis,  as  we  undoubtedly 
shall,  a  great  advance  will  have  been  made 
toward  a  true  understanding  of  nature  in  all 
her  marvellous  works. 

In  considering  what  the  form  of  action  in 
energetic  matter  is  we  must  depend  entirely 
upon  logical  reasoning,  because  the  motion 
of  the  matter  defies  detection,  and  probably 
will  ever  defy  detection;  but  we  are  not  left 
without  hope,  for  the  effects  are  many  and 
ever  present,  and  by  studying  them  assidu- 
ously and  analyzing  them  carefully  we  may, 
by  reasoning  logically,  arrive  at  a  reasonable 
conclusion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  cause, 
taking  into  consideration  the  qualities  which 
we  know  matter  to  possess. 

In  this  way  I  have  arrived  at  what  I 
consider  to  be  a  reasonable  conclusion  as  to 
the  character  of  energial  action,  and  as  to 


Preface  v 

the  methods  by  which  the  different  effects 
are  produced. 

The  results  of  my  thoughts  and  investi- 
gations are  set  forth  in  these  pages,  given 
as  theories. 

It  has  been  my  aim  to  be  explicit  and 
concise,  and  in  order  to  facilitate  the  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  and  make  myself  the 
better  understood,  I  have  found  it  necessary 
to  make  use  of  a  number  of  new  terms. 


H.  P. 


SAN  FRANCISCO, 
April,  1917. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.— THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGIAL  PRO- 
PAGATION        ,        .        .         .  i 
II. — THE  THEORY  OF  THE  ENERGETIC 

ATOM      .        .  ~      .         .         .  14 

III. — THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGY     .         .  24 

IV. — THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGIZEMENT    .  38 
V. — THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SPECTRAL 

LINES     .         .      ,  .         .         .  58 
VI. — THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGIAL  MOTION  64 
VII. — THE  THEORY  OF  CHEMICAL  RE- 
ACTION '.         .         .         .,..,-.  74 
VIII. — THE  THEORY  OF  GRAVITY     .         .  80 
IX. — THE  THEORY  OF  MAGNETISM        .  90 
X. — THE  THEORY  OF  ELECTRICITY       .  105 
XI. — THE  THEORY  OF  REFLECTION        .  140 
XII. — THE  THEORY  OF  COLOUR      .         .  151 
XIII.— THE  THEORY  OF  DOUBLE  REFRAC- 
TION      ,        ,         .         .        .166 
XIV. — THE  THEORY  OF  POLARIZATION     .  175 
XV. — THE  THEORY  OF    EDGETAL    DE- 
FLECTION        .         .         .         .191 
NOTES        .         .         .  '       .         .  217 
vii 


Theories   of  Energy 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGIAL  PROPAGATION 

(The  figures  in  parentheses  refer  to  notes  in  the  back  part  of 
the  book.) 

A  LL  space  is  filled  with  matter,  and  in 
**  the  infiniteness  of  space  there  is  no 
vacuity  anywhere,  not  even  of  the  extent  of 
an  atom's  size,  and  the  universe,  embracing 
all  the  matter  in  existence,  is  continuous 
throughout.  Such  is  the  integrity  of  the 
universe. 

That  energy  is  transmitted  between  the 
bodies  of  the  universe  is  indisputable,  and 
energy  being  a  condition  of  matter,  since 
there  cannot  be  a  condition  of  matter  where 


a  Theories  of  Energy 

•*  *»•'?  %*  k:  *-*.s/A  ../ 

there  is  no  matter,  we  must  take  it  that 
space  is  filled  with  matter,  ethereal  and 
atomic,  and  we  are  justified  in  considering 
that  the  ether  is  the  medium  through  which 
energy  is  transmitted  between  the  bodies 
of  the  universe,  and  the  transmission  or 
propagation  of  energy  through  the  ether  is 
the  subject  to  be  considered  in  this  chapter. 

Under  the  prevailing  theories,  the  undula- 
tory  theory  and  the  electro-magnetic  theory, 
which  are  theories  of  energial  (i)  propaga- 
tion or  action  through  the  ether,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  assume  that  the  ether  possesses 
certain  physical  qualities,  solidity  and  elas- 
ticity, which  would  necessitate  cohesion 
between  its  parts,  so  that  they  would  cling 
together  tenaciously,  but  the  fact  that  the 
ether  offers  no  resistance  to  the  planets  and 
satellites  in  their  passage  through  it,  pre- 
cludes the  idea  that  it  possesses  any  such 
qualities. 

The  ether  is,  in  all  probability,  a  homo- 
geneous substance,  not  in  the  form  of  parti- 
cles, as  some  consider,  but  unparticulate  (2) 


Theory  of  Energial  Propagation     3 

and  continuous,  and  it  is  only  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  there  is  no  cohesion  between 
its  parts,  there  being  merely  a  togetherness 
without  any  forcible  hold. 

Having  no  cohesion  between  its  parts,  it 
cannot  have  solidity  nor  elasticity.  Having 
no  solidity,  it  is  a  perfect  fluid,  and  being 
a  perfect  fluid,  it  has  perfect  passability, 
offering  no  resistance  to  the  passage  of  bodies 
through  it. 

The  ether  has  density,  because  it  occupies 
space,  density  depending  upon  the  quantity 
of  matter  in  any  space,  and  its  density  must 
be  uniform  throughout  its  infinite  expanse, 
because,  being  a  perfect  fluid,  a  uniformity 
of  density  must  obtain.  It  is  impossible  to 
say  what  its  density  is,  and  it  is  immaterial, 
since  passability  depends  on  fluidity  alone. 
Mercury  has  much  greater  density  than 
cork,  and  yet,  due  to  its  fluidity,  it  has  much 
greater  passability  than  cork. 

We  know  that  the  ether  has  a  remarkable 
power  of  transmitting  energy,  and  if  we  are 
able  to  explain  this  without  the  necessity  of 


4  Theories  of  Energy 

ascribing  to  it  the  quality  of  solidity,  the 
explanation  will  assuredly  be  the  more 
acceptable. 

Under  the  theory  of  energial  propagation 
here  advanced  it  is  considered  that  the  ether 
is  condensable  and  rarefiable,  and  that,  owing 
to  its  perfect  fluidity,  when  it  is  condensed 
at  any  point,  the  dense  condition  is  immedi- 
ately taken  up  by  the  surrounding  ether, 
the  density  of  the  ether  in  all  directions  and 
for  a  great  distance  becoming  enough  greater 
to  equalize  the  density  throughout,  and  that 
when  it  is  rarefied  at  any  point,  the  rare  con- 
dition is  immediately  taken  up  by  the  sur- 
rounding ether,  the  density  of  the  ether  in 
all  directions  and  for  a  great  distance  be- 
coming enough  less  to  equalize  the  density 
throughout. 

The  equalization  of  density  necessitates 
a  slight  movement  of  matter.  In  the  case 
of  condensation  the  movement  of  matter  is 
away  from  the  point  of  condensation,  and 
in  the  case  of  rarefaction  the  movement  of 
matter  is  toward  the  point  of  rarefaction. 


Theory  of  Energial  Propagation     5 

While  the  movements  of  matter  in  the  two 
cases  are  in  opposite  directions,  the  equaliz- 
ing actions  in  both  cases,  whereby  the  dense 
and  rare  conditions  are  taken  up  and  the 
density  equalized  over  a  great  distance, 
proceed  away  from  the  points  of  condensa- 
tion and  rarefaction,  and  the  equalization 
takes  place  with  the  same  speed  in  both 
cases,  so  that  if,  after  one  action  has  set  in, 
the  opposite  action  sets  in  from  the  same 
point,  the  latter  does  not  overcome  the 
former. 

Of  course  the  ether  cannot  become  more 
dense  at  one  point  without  becoming  less 
dense  at  another  point  at  the  same  time, 
because  matter  must  move  to  the  point  of 
condensation  from  some  other  point,  and  we 
therefore  see  that  every  equalizing  action 
of  a  dense  condition  must  be  accompanied 
by  an  equal  equalizing  action  of  a  rare 
condition. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  either  action  may 
precede  the  other,  and  it  is  clear  that  a  suc- 
cession of  equalizing  actions  of  the  two  kinds, 


6  Theories  of  Energy 

originating  at  the  same  point,  as  we  may  say, 
the  points  of  origin  being  proximate,  may 
occur  in  the  ether,  the  actions  resulting  from 
condensation  alternating  with  those  result- 
ing from  rarefaction,  each  action  resulting 
from  condensation  being  followed  by  the  ac- 
tion resulting  from  the  accompanying  rare- 
faction, or  vice  versa,  so  that  between  two 
actions  of  the  former  kind  there  will  be  an 
action  of  the  latter  kind,  and  between  two  ac- 
tions of  the  latter  kind  there  will  be  an 
action  of  the  former  kind,  just  as  between 
two  waves  on  the  ocean  there  is  a  trough, 
and  between  two  troughs  there  is  a  wave. 

By  way  of  illustration  let  us  suppose  that 
we  have  a  bottle  filled  with  compressed  air. 
The  air  in  the  bottle  being  denser  than  the 
outside  air,  if  the  bottle  be  broken  the  dense 
condition  will  be  immediately  taken  up  by 
the  surrounding  air,  and  the  density  of  the 
air  for  a  great  distance  around  in  all  direc- 
tions will  be  increased  in  the  equalizing  pro- 
cess. Also,  if  we  break  a  bottle  from  which 
the  air  has  been  exhausted  the  vacuum  will 


Theory  of  Energial  Propagation     7 

be  immediately  taken  up  by  the  surrounding 
air,  and  the  density  of  the  air  for  a  great 
distance  around  in  all  directions  will  be 
decreased  in  the  equalizing  process. 

In  each  case  the  action  whereby  the 
density  is  equalized  will  proceed  away  from 
the  bottle,  and  the  equalizing  actions  in 
both  cases  will  be  propagated  at  the  same 
speed,  and  in  either  case,  after  setting  in, 
the  equalizing  action  will  continue  on  even 
though  an  equalizing  action  of  the  opposite 
kind  should  shortly  afterwards  set  in  at  the 
same  point,  so  that  if  an  evacuated  bottle 
be  broken  shortly  after  the  breaking  of  a 
bottle  containing  compressed  air,  the  equaliz- 
ing action  resulting  from  the  vacuum  will 
not  stop  the  propagation  of  the  preceding 
action,  and  if,  after  the  equalizing  action 
resulting  from  the  vacuum  has  set  in,  another 
bottle  containing  compressed  air  be  broken, 
the  equalizing  action  resulting  therefrom  will 
not  stop  the  propagation  of  the  equalizing 
action  resulting  from  the  vacuum,  so  that 
the  two  kinds  of  equalizing  actions  may 


8  Theories  of  Energy 

follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession  without 
interfering  with  the  propagation  of  each 
other. 

The  equalization  of  density  does  not  occur 
simultaneously  at  all  the  points  to  which 
it  extends  in  the  medium,  but  it  is  accom- 
plished by  the  propagation  of  a  certain  action, 
and  the  propagation  of  such  action  necessarily 
takes  time,  for  it  must  occur  at  one  point 
before  it  reaches  another  point.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  a  subsequent  equalizing 
action  does  not  stop  the  propagation  of  a 
preceding  action  of  the  opposite  kind,  the 
two  being  propagated  at  the  same  speed. 

Now,  under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that 
energy  is  transmitted  or  propagated  through 
the  ether  (and  through  other  transmitting 
media  also)  in  the  manner  described,  it  being 
supposed  that  the  alternate  dense  and  rare 
conditions  in  the  medium  are  caused  by  the 
energy  of  atomic  matter,  and  that  they  in 
turn  cause  energy  in  atomic  matter  which 
they  engage. 

The  dense  and  rare  portions  of  the  medium, 


Theory  of  Energial  Propagation     9 

occurring  alternately,  since  they  depend  on 
difference  in  the  density,  may  be  called 
Densits  (3),  and  for  the  purpose  of  distin- 
guishing the  two  kinds  and  identifying  them 
with  the  two  qualities  of  energy,  positive  and 
negative,  it  being  supposed  under  the  theory 
that  all  forms  of  energy  have  two  qualities 
and  that  the  two  qualities  are  transmitted 
together,  the  dense  portions  may  be  called 
Positive  densits,  and  the  rare  portions  may 
be  called  Negative  densits. 

The  densitic  intensity  depends  on  the 
degree  of  density  in  the  positive  densits  and 
the  degree  of  rarity  in  the  negative  densits, 
and  the  densitic  intensity  determines  the 
intensity  of  the  energy. 

Since  rarefaction  results  as  a  consequence 
of  condensation,  or  vice  versa,  the  degree  of 
rarity  is  exactly  equal  to  the  degree  of  den- 
sity in  any  case,  so  that  in  a  densitic  system 
the  intensity  of  the  negative  densits  is  exactly 
equal  to  the  intensity  of  the  positive  densits, 
and  so  the  two  qualities  of  energy  in  any 
system  are  exactly  equal  in  intensity. 


io  Theories  of  Energy 

It  is  clear  that  in  the  equalization  of  den- 
sity the  intensity  diminishes  inversely  as 
the  squares  of  the  distances  over  which  the 
action  proceeds,  which  means  that  the  den- 
sitic  intensity  varies  inversely  as  the  squares 
of  the  distances  over  which  the  densits  pro- 
ceed, and  therefore  the  intensity  of  the  trans- 
mitted energy  varies  in  the  same  manner. 

If  the  densits  originate  at  a  single,  isolated 
particle  of  atomic  matter  in  the  medium  they 
will  proceed  in  all  directions  from  it,  and, 
the  medium  having  uniform  density,  they 
will  be  propagated  at  the  same  velocity  in 
all  directions,  so  that  each  densit  will  be 
spherical  in  form,  and  all  will  be  concentric 
and  parallel. 

But  energy  is  usually  transmitted  from 
points  in  the  surfaces  of  bodies  of  atomic 
matter,  and  the  form  of  the  densits  which 
are  propagated  through  the  medium  from 
the  points  in  the  surface  of  a  body  is  that  of 
some  segment  of  a  sphere,  being  hemispheri- 
cal when  they  originate  at  points  in  a  convex 
or  plane  surface. 


Theory  of  Energial  Propagation    n 

Densits  are  often  deformed  through  re- 
fraction, losing  the  spherical  form  and  taking 
some  other  convex  form,  such  as  the  form  of 
an  ellipsoid,  or  some  segment  thereof,  or 
becoming  plane  or  concave,  the  convexity 
being  reversed.  When  brought  to  a  focus 
by  a  lens  they  are  always  concave,  and  after 
passing  the  focal  point  they  become  convex 
again. 

Each  little  part  of  a  densit  proceeds  along 
a  line  which  is  normal  to  that  part  of  the 
densit,  and  this  principle  of  normal  propaga- 
tion obtains  whatever  the  densitic  form.  If 
the  form  is  spherical  the  parts  proceed  along 
lines  radiating  from  the  point  of  generation. 
If  the  convexity  is  reversed  the  parts  pro- 
ceed along  lines  converging  to  the  focal  point. 
If  the  form  is  that  of  a  plane  the  parts 
proceed  along  parallel  lines. 

In  such  cases  the  lines  of  propagation  are 
straight,  but  when  the  density  of  the  medium 
is  not  uniform  the  lines  of  propagation  are 
curved,  as,  owing  to  the  non-uniformity  of 
density  of  the  earth's  atmosphere,  the  lines 


12  Theories  of  Energy 

of  propagation  through  it  of  the  angling 
sunlight  and  starlight  are  curved,  on  which 
account  we  see  them  at  rising  sooner  than 
we  otherwise  would,  and  we  see  them  at 
setting  later  than  we  otherwise  would. 

The  densits  proceed  through  a  medium  at 
a  high  velocity,  and  the  densitic  velocity 
is  the  velocity  at  which  the  energy  is  trans- 
mitted. The  velocity  is  different  in  different 
media,  and  it  is  different  in  the  same  medium 
at  different  densities,  the  more  dense  the 
medium,  the  lower  the  velocity. 

By  this  theory  of  energial  propagation  we 
are  enabled  to  understand  how  the  two  quali- 
ties of  energy,  positive  and  negative,  are 
transmitted  together  through  a  medium,  the 
positive  densits  being  the  positive  energy,  and 
the  negative  densits  being  the  negative 
energy.  This  theory  of  biqualital  (4)  trans- 
mitted energy  is  supported  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson  (5). 

Under  the  theory  of  kinetic  energizement, 
explained  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  the  posi- 
tively charged  particles  referred  to  by  Prof. 


Theory  of  Energial  Propagation   13 

Thomson  are  actuated  in  one  direction  by  the 
positive  energy,  and  the  negatively  charged 
particles  are  actuated  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion by  the  negative  energy. 

Under  both  the  undulatory  theory  and 
the  electro-magnetic  theory  the  ether  is 
considered  to  be  the  only  transmitting  me- 
dium. It  is  more  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  energy  is  transmitted  through  atomic 
matter  also,  and  the  transmission  of  energy 
through  atomic  matter  will  be  considered  in 
a  subsequent  chapter. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  THEORY  OF  THE  ENERGETIC  ATOM 

T  TNDER .  the  prevailing  theory  of  energy 
V^  the  particles  of  atomic  matter  are 
not  supposed  to  be  energetic  within  them- 
selves. It  is  supposed  that  the  particles 
are  not  in  contact  with  each  other,  but  that 
there  are  spaces  between  them  filled  with 
ether,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  waves  in 
the  ether  enter  these  spaces  and  cause  the 
particles  to  oscillate  or  fly  around,  which 
motion  of  the  particles  is  supposed  to  be  the 
energy  of  the  atomic  matter  (6). 

Under  the  theory  of  the  energetic  atom 
here  advanced  it  is  supposed  that  the  atoms 
are  composed  of  unparticulate  matter,  and 
it  is  supposed  that  the  matter  composing 
the  atom  is  energetic  within  itself. 
14 


Theory  of  the  Energetic  Atom    15 

Vision  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  energy 
which  is  transmitted  to  the  eye  from  the 
matter  perceived,  and  when  we  consider  that 
we  can  see  from  any  direction  above  the 
surface  of  a  piece  of  white  paper  every  point 
in  the  surface,  we  must  suppose  that  the 
transmitted  energy  is  generated  at  every 
point  in  the  surface,  and  the  fact  that  we  can 
see  each  point  from  every  direction  above 
the  surface  indicates  that  the  densits  are 
hemispherical  in  form,  which  shows  that 
the  systems  of  densits  must  originate  at  the 
points  of  which  they  give  vision,  respectively. 

The  prevailing  idea  is  that  vision  of  an 
object  depends  on  the  light  which  is  broken 
up  by  irregular  reflection,  due  to  the  rough- 
ness of  the  surface,  and  scattered  in  all  direc- 
tions (7),  but  when  we  consider  that  the 
densits  which  give  vision  of  any  point  in  the 
surface  of  an  object  must  be  perfectly  regular 
throughout  and  continuous  throughout,  the 
theory  becomes  untenable.  And  especially 
does  the  theory  become  untenable  when  we 
consider  that  the  densitic  curvature  (8)  of 


16  Theories  of  Energy 

the  light  by  which  we  see  the  points  in  the 
surface  of  an  object  near  at  hand  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  regularly  reflected  sunlight 
from  such  surface,  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  focal  point  in  the  eye  for  the  densits 
which  give  vision  of  objects  near  at  hand 
shifts  with  the  changing  of  the  distance 
between  the  eye  and  the  object,  requiring 
an  adjustment  of  the  lens,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  regularly  reflected  sunlight  or 
light  from  a  distant  source,  because,  owing 
to  the  great  distance  of  the  sun,  the  com- 
paratively slight  changes  in  distance  have  no 
appreciable  effect  on  the  densitic  curvature. 
If  the  densits  which  give  vision  of  objects 
in  the  sunlight  were  formed  by  irregularly 
reflected  parts  of  the  sunlight,  the  densitic 
curvature  would  be  the  same  as  in  the  sun- 
light regularly  reflected  from  the  objects, 
and  the  focal  point  in  the  eye  would  be  the 
same  at  all  distances. 

We  must  therefore  conclude  that  the  energy 
which  gives  us  vision  of  the  objects  about  us 
is  generated  by  the  atoms  in  the  surfaces  of 


Theory  of  the  Energetic  Atom     17 

the  objects,  the  atoms  being  incited  to  energy 
by  the  light  which  falls  upon  them. 

Without  a  microscope  a  very  small  particle 
of  matter  can  be  seen,  so  small  that  it  appears 
to  be  a  bare  point  without  appreciable  ex- 
panse, and  no  surface  details  can  be  seen, 
but  when  we  look  at  the  particle  through  a 
microscope  of  high  power  it  appears  to  have 
quite  an  expanse,  and  many  points,  many 
thousands  of  points,  can  be  seen  in  its  surface, 
and  surface  details,  even  differences  in  colour, 
can  be  seen. 

The  densits  generated  at  the  different 
points  in  the  surface  of  the  particle  are  so 
nearly  parallel  that  without  the  microscope 
they  reach  a  single  cell  in  the  retina.  The 
microscope  increases  the  densitic  angularity 
(9),  so  that  they  reach  different  cells  in  the 
retina,  and  at  the  same  time  it  decreases 
the  densitic  expanse,  thereby  increasing  the 
intensity  and  making  the  vision  stronger. 

From  this  we  see  how  small  the  particles 
of  matter  are  in  which  the  densits  are  gen- 
erated, and  this,  together  with  other  facts, 


i8  Theories  of  Energy 

justifies  us  in  saying  that  the  atoms  are  in- 
dividually energetic. 

Contrary  to  the  idea  held  under  the  present 
theories  of  atomic  matter,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  atoms  composing  a  body  are  in  contact 
with  each  other,  with  cohesion  between  them, 
so  that  they  cling  together,  for  it  is  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  a  body  could  maintain 
its  form  and  its  integrity  without  cohesion 
between  the  atoms,  and  it  is  inconceivable 
that  a  body  could  have  rigidity  and  elasticity 
without  the  particles  firmly  cohering  together. 

Under  the  theory  different  kinds  of  atoms 
are  supposed  to  have  different  densities  and 
different  degrees  of  solidity.  The  hydrogen 
atom  is  supposed  to  be  tenuous,  with  very 
little  solidity,  and  the  iron  atom  is  supposed 
to  be  dense,  with  great  solidity. 

As  is  well  known,  different  atomic  sub- 
stances manifest  different  energial  characters, 
being  differently  affected  by  energy,  having 
different  colours,  transmitting  energy  differ- 
ently, and  so  on,  and  under  the  theory  it  is 
supposed  that  the  energial  characters  are 


Theory  of  the  Energetic  Atom     19 

due  to  the  physical  conditions  of  the  atoms, 
for  under  what  may  be  called  the  Law  of 
Conditions,  which  seems  to  be  the  prime 
law  of  nature,  different  effects  occur  under 
different  conditions. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  considered  that 
every  atom  possesses  the  inherent  power  of 
energy,  and  that  every  atom  is  eternally 
energetic  within  itself.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  internal  energy  acts  toward  or  away 
from  the  centre  of  the  atom,  probably  toward 
the  centre  in  some,  and  probably  away  from 
the  centre  in  others. 

Considering  the  energy  to  be  biqualital, 
and  considering  the  action  to  be  the  same  as 
that  whereby  energy  is  transmitted  through 
a  medium,  as  explained  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  consisting  in  the  occurrence  of 
alternate  dense  and  rare  conditions,  and 
giving  rise  to  both  positive  and  negative 
densits,  it  is  supposed  that  the  densits  pro- 
ceed toward  the  centre  of  the  atom  or  away 
from  the  centre  of  the  same,  the  positive 
movement  of  matter  being  in  the  direction 


so  Theories  of  Energy 

in  which  the  densits  proceed,  and  the  nega- 
tive movement  of  matter  being  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  different  kinds 
of  atoms  may  be  combined  together  in  a 
compound  and  that  they  may  then  be  sepa- 
rated or  dissociated  by  chemical  reaction 
without  losing  their  individual  identities. 
The  dissociation  is  accomplished  through 
the  energy  of  the  atoms  themselves,  and 
under  the  theory  that  each  atom  is  energetic 
within  itself  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  it 
maintains  its  individuality,  for,  the  energy 
of  each  atom  acting  either  toward  or  away 
from  its  centre,  as  the  case  may  be,  the 
centres  of  adjacent  atoms  are  definitely 
established  centres  of  energy,  and  when  the 
condition  of  energy  which  causes  the  disso- 
ciation arises  in  the  atoms,  each  of  course 
maintains  its  individual  integrity. 

While  it  is  considered  that  the  atom  is 
eternally  energetic,  it  is  clear  that  its  energy 
may  be  augmented  and  retarded.  All  the 
matter  of  which  we  know  on  the  earth  has 


Theory  of  the  Energetic  Atom    21 

temperature,  and  we  know  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  all  matter  may  be  raised  and  reduced, 
which  means  that  its  energy  may  be  aug- 
mented and  retarded. 

Gravity  is  undoubtedly  a  form  of  energy, 
and  under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that 
every  atom  is  perpetually  energetic  in  that 
form  of  energy. 

The  temperature  of  all  the  atomic  matter 
of  which  we  know  on  the  earth  is  far  above 
absolute  zero,  and  under  the  theory  it  is 
supposed  that  bodies  of  atomic  matter  are 
perpetually  energetic  in  the  heat  form  of 
energy,  and  also  in  the  form  of  energy  which 
causes  chemical  action,  the  gamma  energy 
of  radioactive  matter  being  of  that  form; 
these  forms  of  energy  arising  in  consequence 
of  the  existence  of  many  atoms  together. 

Radioactivity  is  an  energetic  condition  of 
matter,  and  it  is  said  that  all  atomic  matter 
is  radioactive  (10). 

If  we  suppose  that  the  energy  acts  toward 
or  away  from  the  centres  of  the  atoms,  the 
movement  of  matter  in  one  of  the  qualities 


22  Theories  of  Energy 

of  the  energy  is  toward  the  outskirts  of  the 
atoms,  and  we  can  well  imagine  that  small 
parts  of  the  atoms  might  easily  become  sepa- 
rated at  the  outskirts,  and  the  atoms  be 
thereby  gradually  disintegrated,  it  being  the 
opinion  of  physicists  that  the  atoms  are 
disintegrated  by  radioactivity  (n). 

Under  this  theory  it  can  be  understood 
how  the  process  may  continue  over  a  long 
period  of  time  without  the  atoms  being  entire- 
ly disintegrated,  for  it  is  to  be  supposed  that 
the  diffusion  is  commensurate  with  the  size 
of  the  atom,  so  that  as  the  atom  decreases  in 
size,  the  diffusion  decreases  accordingly,  and, 
theoretically,  at  least,  no  matter  how  long 
the  process  might  continue,  the  central  por- 
tion of  the  atom  would  still  remain. 

Under  the  theory  the  size  of  the  atom 
has  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  its  character, 
its  character  depending  upon  its  physical 
and  energial  peculiarities. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  con- 
densation and  rarefaction  in  an  atom  give 
rise  to  densition,  positive  and  negative,  in  the 


Theory  of  the  Energetic  Atom    23 

atom,  the  propagating  action  in  the  atom 
being  similar  to  that  which  is  supposed  to 
occur  in  the  ether,  as  explained  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
condensing  and  rarefying  actions  are  per- 
petually recurring  in  the  atom,  due  to  an 
inherent  power. 

The  propagation  of  energy  in  atomic 
matter  is  evidently  affected  by  the  physical 
condition  and  physical  qualities  of  the  matter, 
the  elasticity  of  the  matter,  especially,  having 
to  do  with  the  velocity  of  propagation. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGY 

T  TNDER  this  theory  energy  is  the  action 
W  of  atomic  matter  within  itself,  energy 
being  generated  within  the  atoms.  All 
energy  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  in  form  of 
action,  the  form  of  action  being  densitic,  as 
has  been  explained  (12). 

All  energy  is  transmissible  through  the  ether, 
and,  more  or  less,  through  atomic  matter  also, 
but  until  it  acts  in  some  method  on  atomic 
matter,  transmitted  energy  does  not  produce 
any  effect  by  which  it  can  be  detected. 

The  action  of  the  transmitting  matter  is 
energy,  of  course,  but  it  is  better  to  look  upon 
it  as  the  energy  of  the  matter  in  which  it  is 
generated,  and  from  which  it  is  transmitted. 
We  do  not  refer  to  the  energy  which  is  gen- 
24 


The  Theory  of  Energy  25 

erated  in  the  sun  and  transmitted  by  the 
ether  as  the  energy  of  the  ether,  but  we  refer 
to  it  as  the  energy  of  the  sun. 

The  different  forms  of  energy,  gravity, 
magnetism,  heat,  light,  chemicity  (13),  and 
electricity,  are  differentiated,  as  far  as  they 
are  different,  by  densitic  differences,  and  are 
manifested  as  different  forms  by  the  different 
effects  produced  in  matter  acted  on  by  them, 
and  under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
different  effects  are  due  to  the  different  meth- 
ods of  action,  on  account  of  the  densitic  differ- 
ences which  differentiate  the  different  forms. 

Under  the  theory  gravity  is  supposed  to 
be  the  primordial  energy,  inherent  and  per- 
petual in  every  atom,  and  the  atoms  of  bodies 
and  aggregations  are  also  supposed  to  be  per- 
petually energetic  in  heat  energy  and  in 
chemic  energy  as  a  consequence  of  the  action 
of  the  energy  of  the  atoms  on  each  other, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  all  energy,  except 
gravity,  depends  on  the  action  of  the  energy 
of  the  atoms  on  each  other. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 


26  Theories  of   Energy 

different  kinds  of  atomic  matter  have  differ- 
ent energial  characters,  or  energitias  (14), 
on  account  of  which  they  become  energetic 
in  different  ways  when  incited  by  the  energy 
of  other  matter,  and  on  account  of  which 
the  same  matter  becomes  energetic  in  differ- 
ent ways  when  incited  by  the  energy  of 
different  kinds  of  matter. 

THE  DIFFERENTIATING  FACTOR  IN  ENERGY. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  number  of  densits 
generated  each  second  in  a  densitic  system 
depends  on  the  frequency  of  the  condensa- 
tions and  rarefactions  at  the  point  of  genera- 
tion, and  it  is  obvious  that  the  distance 
between  two  adjacent  positive  densits,  or 
between  two  adjacent  negative  densits,  de- 
pends on  that  also  and  on  the  velocity  which 
the  densits  have  in  the  medium  through 
which  they  are  proceeding. 

The  frequency  of  generation  of  the  positive 
densits,  or  of  the  negative  densits,  or  the 
frequency  with  which  the  positive  densits, 
or  negative  densits,  arrive  at  any  point,  the 
densits  having  been  generated  at  the  same 


The  Theory  of  Energy  27 

point,  is  the  densitic  Frequency.  The  fre- 
quency of  course  depends  upon  the  number 
of  densits  generated  per  second,  the  second 
being  the  unit  period  of  time  used  in  connec- 
tion with  densitic  frequency. 

The  time  elapsing  between  the  generation, 
or  between  the  arrival  at  a  point,  of  two  posi- 
tive densits,  or  of  two  negative  densits,  is  the 
densitic  Interim.  This  is  merely  another 
way  of  referring  to  the  frequency,  because 
the  frequency  depends  on  the  interim,  but 
it  is  a !  convenient  term  in  connection  with 
densitic  generation. 

The  distance  between  the  centres  of  two 
adjacent  positive  densits,  or  between  the 
centres  of  two  adjacent  negative  densits,  in 
a  system  of  densits  generated  at  a  single 
point,  is  the  densitic  Interval. 

The  densitic  frequency  is  the  factor  to  be 
considered  in  connection  with  differences  in 
energy  and  in  connection  with  the  different 
forms  of  energy,  the  differences  being  due, 
evidently,  to  differences  in  the  frequencies 
of  the  densits. 


28  Theories  of  Energy 

While  a  certain  interval  corresponds  with 
a  certain  frequency  in  one  medium,  in  another 
medium  the  same  interval  does  not  correspond 
with  the  same  frequency,  because  the  den- 
sitic  velocity  is  not  the  same  in  different 
media.  With  a  given  interim,  the  higher  the 
velocity,  the  longer  the  densitic  interval,  but 
regardless  of  the  different  velocities  in  differ- 
ent media,  and  therefore  regardless  of  the 
different  intervals  resulting  from  such  differ- 
ent velocities,  the  energy  remains  the  same, 
which  shows  that  the  changing  of  the  in- 
terval does  not  change  the  energy.  The 
frequency  remains  the  same  whatever  the 
velocity,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  densitic  frequency  is  regarded  as  the 
differentiating  factor. 

THE  MANNERS  AND  MANNERIES  OF  EN- 
ERGY. Energy  of  any  particular  densitic 
frequency  may  be  called  a  Manner  (15) 
of  energy,  being  the  manner  in  which  the 
energial  action  occurs. 

The  character  of  energy,  with  reference  to 
the  peculiar  manner  or  manners  of  any  par- 


The  Theory  of  Energy  29 

ticular  system  of  energy,  may  be  called  the 
Mannerism,  or  Manneric  Character,  of  the 
energy. 

Light  includes  a  certain  range  of  energial 
manners,  and  certain  ranges  of  manners 
evidently  produce  the  greatest  effects  in 
the  other  forms  of  energy,  respectively,  and 
such  a  manneric  range  may  be  called  a 
Mannery  (16),  and  the  different  forms  of 
energy  may  be  referred  to  as  different  energial 
manneries. 

Every  system  of  energy  (except,  it  is  sup- 
posed, systems  of  gravity)  evidently  consists 
of  a  number  of  manners,  that  is  consists  of  a 
number  of  individual,  concurrent  systems, 
each  of  a  different  manner,  which  complex 
character  of  energy  may  be  called  Polyman- 
nerism,  and  the  energy  may  be  said  to  be 
Polymanneric. 

The  term  Monomanneric  may  be  applied 
to  energy  and  systems  of  energy  which  may 
be  supposed  to  have  but  a  single  manner,  as, 
to  gravity,  which  is  probably  monomanneric. 

Systems  of  energy,  such  as  the  sun's  energy, 


30  Theories  of  Energy 

often  include  more  than  one  mannery,  and 
such  energy  may  be  said  to  be  Polymannerial, 
and  this  whether  all  the  manners  of  each 
mannery  are  included  or  not. 

When  manners  of  only  one  mannery  are 
included  in  a  system  of  energy,  the  energy 
and  the  system  may  be  said  to  be  Mono- 
mannerial. 

THE  METHODS  OF  ENERGY.  As  explained 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  internal  energy 
of  an  atom  is  supposed  to  act  toward  or  away 
from  the  centre  of  the  atom,  which  is  a  method 
in  which  the  energy  acts,  and  it  may  be 
called  a  Method  of  energy,  being  the  Centro- 
atomic  method  of  energy,  and  the  matter 
may  be  said  to  be  centroatomically  energetic. 

Considering  that  the  energy  acts  toward 
the  centre  in  some  atoms  and  away  from 
the  centre  in  others,  if  it  be  supposed  that  the 
action  is  toward  the  centre  in  any  case,  the 
densits  proceeding  toward  the  centre  and 
the  positive  movement  of  matter  being  to- 
ward the  centre,  the  atoms  may  be  said  to  be 
Proscentrally  energetic,  and  if  it  be  supposed 


The  Theory  of  Energy  31 

that  the  action  is  away  from  the  centre  of  the 
atom,  the  densits  proceeding  away  from  the 
centre  and  the  positive  movement  of  matter 
being  away  from  the  centre,  the  atoms  may 
be  said  to  be  Apocentrally  energetic. 

Most  of  the  manners  of  the  solar  energy 
are  transmitted  through  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere by  the  same  method  in  which  energy 
is  transmitted  through  the  ether,  the  densits 
proceeding  through  the  atmosphere  just  as 
though  it  were  a  body  of  unparticulate 
matter,  the  atmosphere  not  becoming  centro- 
atomically  energetic  under  such  manners, 
the  densits  passing  through  the  atoms  from 
side  to  side. 

When  the  densits  which  engage  an  atom 
pass  through  it  from  side  to  side  it  may  be 
called  the  Transatomic  method  of  energy, 
and  the  matter  may  be  said  to  be  transatomi- 
cally  energetic. 

Since  the  ether  is  not  particulate  in  form 
the  term  Transatomic  is  not  applicable  to 
the  method  in  which  energy  is  transmitted 
through  the  ether.  The  method  in  which 


32  Theories  of  Energy 

energy  is  transmitted  through  the  ether  may 
be  called  the  Transmissive  method,  and  this 
term  may  be  used  in  connection  with  atomic 
media  also. 

For  the  sake  of  distinction,  the  energy 
which  is  generated  centroatomically  in  parti- 
cles or  bodies  of  matter  may  be  referred  to 
as  Centroatomic  energy,  and  energy  which 
is  transmitted  through  the  atoms  or  bodies 
of  atomic  matter  may  be  referred  to  as 
Transatomic  energy. 

Energy  which  is  transmitted  through  the 
ether  may  be  referred  to  as  Transmissive 
energy,  and  this  term  may  also  be  applied 
to  energy  transmitted  through  atomic  media. 

THE  INTENSITY  OF  ENERGY.  Under  the 
theory  the  intensity  of  energy  depends  on 
the  densitic  intensity,  that  is,  on  the  differ- 
ence in  density  occurring  in  consequence  of 
both  the  positive  and  negative  densits,  but 
as  to  either  quality  of  energy,  considered 
alone,  the  intensity  depends  on  the  difference 
between  the  density  of  the  densits  of  such 
quality  and  the  normal  density  of  the  matter, 


The  Theory  of  Energy  33 

so  that  in  any  biqualital  system  the  intensities 
of  the  two  qualities  are  equal. 

When  light  is  brought  to  a  focus  by  a  lens 
the  densitic  intensity  increases,  because  the 
densitic  expanse  decreases,  and  therefore  the 
intensity  of  the  light  increases. 

DENSITIC  CONCORDANCE  AND  INTERFER- 
ENCE. Systems  of  densits  which  proceed 
in  the  same,  or  about  the  same,  direction, 
as  in  the  case  of  systems  which  reach  the 
eye  from  different  points  in  a  luminous  body, 
may  be  referred  to  as  Cogressive  systems, 
and  systems  which  proceed  in  counter  direc- 
tions, as  in  the  case  of  systems  from  two  lumi- 
nous bodies  proceeding  toward  a  point  be- 
tween the  bodies,  may  be  referred  to  as 
Countergressive  systems. 

When  densits  of  like  qualities  of  two  cogres- 
sive  systems  of  energy  coincide,  the  positive 
with  positive,  and  the  negative  with  negative, 
the  densitic  intensity  is  of  course  increased, 
and  the  intensity  of  the  energy  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  intensities  of  the  two 
systems. 


34  Theories  of  Energy 

The  same  is  true  also  when  densits  of  un- 
like qualities  of  two  countergressive  systems 
of  energy  coincide,  the  positive  with  negative, 
and  the  negative  with  positive. 

Such  coincidence  of  densits  may  be  called 
densitic  Concordance,  and  the  resulting  in- 
crease in  intensity  may  be  called  densitic 
Intension. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  densits  of  unlike 
qualities  of  two  cogressive  systems  of  energy 
coincide,  the  positive  with  negative,  and  the 
negative  with  positive,  the  densits  of  one 
quality  overcome  the  other,  wholly  or  par- 
tially, depending  on  their  relative  intensities, 
and  the  effect  of  the  energy,  at  the  points  of 
coincidence  is  therefore  overcome,  wholly  or 
partially,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  same  is  true  also  when  densits  of  like 
qualities  of  two  countergressive  systems  of 
energy  coincide,  the  positive  with  positive, 
and  the  negative  with  negative. 

Such  coincidence  of  densits  is  densitic 
Interference,  which  is  well  established  under 
the  undulatory  theory,  and  the  resulting 


The  Theory  of  Energy  35 

decrease  in,  or  loss  of,  intensity  may  be 
called  densitic  Vitiation. 

Densitic  intension  and  vitiation  not  only 
occur  in  light,  but  in  the  other  forms  of  energy 
also. 

During  the  heating  and  cooling  of  iron 
decalescence  and  recalescence  occur,  being 
due,  it  is  supposed,  to  densitic  vitiation  and 
intension,  respectively,  owing  to  increase  in 
the  polymannerism  of  the  energy  as  the 
temperature  rises,  and  to  decrease  therein 
as  the  temperature  drops,  the  addition  of 
new  systems  of  densits  causing  interference, 
and  the  subsidence  of  systems  lessening  the 
existing  interference. 

DENSITIC  CONSOLIDATION.  The  visual 
point,  even  that  with  a  powerful  microscope, 
includes  many  atoms,  the  individual  atom 
being  indistinguishable,  because,  owing  to 
the  smallness  and  closeness  together  of  the 
atoms,  the  densits  from  the  contiguous  atoms 
are  parallel,  as  we  may  say,  the  systems  of 
densits  from  the  different  atoms  being  con- 
solidated  into  a  single,  irresolvable  system. 


36  Theories  of  Energy 

This  consolidation  of  densitic  systems  from 
different  points  into  a  single  system  may  be 
called  densitic  Consolidation. 

An  area  on  the  sun  two  hundred  miles  in 
diameter  is  about  the  smallest  extent  that 
can  be  measured  with  the  aid  of  a  large  tele- 
scope. A  luminous  body  less  than  two  hun- 
dred miles  in  diameter  at  the  distance  of  the 
sun  would  be  seen  through  the  telescope 
as  a  mere  point  of  light  were  it  not  for 
internal  reflection  in  the  lenses,  which  would 
produce  an  appreciable  disk,  called  the 
spurious  disk  by  astronomers. 

Owing  to  the  great  distance,  complete 
densitic  consolidation  occurs  in  the  light  of 
the  fixed  stars,  which  are  therefore  mere 
points  of  light,  although  they  have  spurious 
disks. 

The  fixed  stars  are  of  various  colours,  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  purple,  and  white, 
and  here  we  have  strong  evidence  against 
the  present  theory  that  the  different  colours 
are  due  to  different  densitic  intervals  or 
frequencies,  for  it  is  obvious  that,  owing 


The  Theory  of  Energy  37 

to  densitic  consolidation,  the  interval  and 
frequency  in  the  light  of  a  star  of  any  colour 
must  be  very  different  from  the  interval  and 
frequency  in  the  light  of  a  small  particle  of 
matter  of  the  same  colour. 

Under  the  theory  of  colour  set  forth  in  a 
subsequent  chapter  difference  in  colour  does 
not  depend  on  difference  in  densitic  interval 
or  frequency. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGIZEMENT 


energizement  of  atomic  matter,  the 
incitement  of  energy  in  atoms  by  the 
energy  of  other  matter,  is  a  new  subject. 

The  principle  of  energizement  is  a  most 
important  one,  for  it  is  through  energize- 
ment that  matter  acts  on  matter;  it  is 
through  it  that  all  the  changes  that  are  ever 
going  on  about  us  are  accomplished,  and  it  is 
through  it  that  all  phenomena  are  produced. 

The  theory  of  energizement  here  advanced 
is  that,  all  atoms  being  energetic,  the  energy 
of  every  atom  is  imparted  to  the  matter  in 
contact  with  it,  whether  the  ether  or  other 
atoms,  and  the  energy  of  an  atom  energizes 
the  atoms  which  it  engages  in  certain  ways 
(methodically,  moodically,  and  modally),  de- 
38 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      39 

pending  on  the  manneric  character  of  the 
energy  and  on  the  energial  characters  of  the 
atoms  engaged. 

THE  METHODS  OF  ENERGIZEMENT.  Under 
the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  matter  may 
be  energized  in  any  of  the  following  methods: 

It  may  be  energized  centroatomically  by 
both  qualities  of  all  or  some  of  the  manners 
of  the  engaging  energy,  which  may  be  called 
Centroatomic  energizement,  and  the  matter 
may  be  said  to  be  centroatomically  energized. 

It  may  be  energized  transatomically  by 
both  qualities  of  all  or  some  of  the  manners 
of  the  engaging  energy,  which  may  be  called 
Transatomic  energizement,  and  the  matter 
may  be  said  to  be  transatomically  energized. 

The  matter  being  composed  of  different 
substances,  mixed  together,  one  substance 
may  be  energized  centroatomically  by  both 
qualities  of  some  of  the  manners  of  the  en- 
gaging energy,  and  transatomically  by  both 
qualities  of  the  other  manners  thereof  and 
of  the  centroatomic  energy  of  the  rest  of  the 
matter,  and  the  other  substance,  or  each  of 


40  Theories  of  Energy 

the  other  substances,  if  more  than  one,  may 
be  energized  centroatomically  by  both  quali- 
ties of  other  manners  of  the  engaging  energy 
(each  substance,  if  more  than  one,  being  so 
energized  by  different  manners),  and  trans- 
atomically  by  both  qualities  of  the  other 
manners  thereof  and  of  the  centroatomic 
energy  of  the  rest  of  the  matter,  or,  one  or 
more  of  the  substances  being  so  energized, 
the  other  substance  or  substances  may  be  en- 
ergized transatomically  by  both  qualities  of 
all  the  manners  of  the  engaging  energy  and 
of  the  centroatomic  energy  of  the  rest  of  the 
matter.  This  may  be  called  Misceous  (mixed) 
energizement,  and  the  matter  may  be  said 
to  be  misceously  energized.  Translucency 
results  from  this  method  of  energizement  by 
light. 

The  inciting  energy  being  transmissive, 
matter  may  be  energized  centroatomically 
by  one  quality  of  all  or  some  of  the  manners 
of  the  engaging  energy,  and  the  same  matter 
may  be  energized  transatomically  by  the 
other  quality  of  such  manners,  which  may  be 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      41 

called  Kinetic  energizement,  and  the  matter 
may  be  said  to  be  kinetically  energized.  It 
is  by  this  method  of  energizement  that  energy 
actuates  particles  and  bodies  of  matter  to 
motion. 

The  matter  being  molecular,  consisting 
of  different  kinds  of  atoms,  and  one  kind 
being  centroatomically  energetic,  the  other 
kind  may  be  energized  transatomically  by 
such  centroatomic  energy,  one  quality  of  such 
transatomic  energy  proceeding  through  the 
body  in  one  direction,  and  the  other  quality 
proceeding  through  it  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, and  other  atoms  of  the  kind  which  are 
centroatomically  energetic  and  which  are 
engaged  by  such  transatomic  energy  being 
energized  centroatomically  in  both  qualities 
of  the  energy  by  either  quality  of  the  trans- 
atomic  energy,  one  quality  of  the  centro- 
atomic energy  arising  spontaneously.  This 
may  be  called  Polar  energizement,  and  the 
body  may  be  said  to  be  polarly  energized  or 
energetic.  It  is  by  this  method  that  polarity 
is  produced  in  magnets  and  electrified  bodies. 


42  Theories  of  Energy 

The  matter  being  mixed  or  particle  laden, 
as  a  medium  containing  particles,  or  there 
being  contiguous,  particle-laden  bodies  of 
matter,  as  a  wire  surrounded  by  air,  and  the 
matter  of  one  kind,  as  the  particles,  being 
centroatomically  energized  in  both  qualities 
of  energy,  the  matter  of  different  kind  may 
be  energized  transatomically  or  transmis- 
vsively  in  both  qualities  by  such  centroatomic 
energy,  and  other  matter  of  the  kind  in  which 
such  transmissive  energy  is  generated  and 
which  is  engaged  thereby  may  in  turn  be 
centroatomically  energized  in  both  qualities 
thereby,  the  centroatomic  energy  of  such 
matter  being  transmitted  in  all  directions 
through  the  other  kind  of  matter,  and  so  on. 
This  may  be  called  the  Electric  method  of 
energizement,  it  being  by  this  method  that 
electricity  is  supposed  to  be  transmitted. 
The  misceous  method  may,  in  some  cases, 
be  the  same  as  the  electric  method. 

When  matter  is  energized  centroatomically 
by  one  quality  of  energy  it  is  supposed  that 
the  other  quality  of  centroatomic  energy 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      43 

arises  spontaneously,  so  that  the  centroatomic 
energy  incited  in  the  kinetic  and  polar 
methods  of  energizement  is  supposed  to  be 
biqualital. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
manners  of  energy  which  incite  matter  to 
energy,  centroatomically  or  transatomically, 
spend  themselves  in  such  energizement,  so 
that  it  is  not  supposed  that  the  same  matter 
can  be  energized  by  the  same  manners  both 
centroatomically  and  transatomically  in  both 
qualities,  which  would  be  double  energize- 
ment ;  but  the  double  method  of  energy  pos- 
sibly arises  in  some  cases,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  through  the  kinetic  method  of  energize- 
ment. Matter  being  energized  centroatomi- 
cally in  one  quality  of  energy,  the  other 
quality  arises  spontaneously,  and  being  ener- 
gized transatomically  in  one  quality,  the 
other  quality  may,  to  some  extent  at  least, 
arise  spontaneously  also. 

THE  MODES  OF  ENERGIZEMENT.  The 
manners  of  transmitted  energy  are,  evidently, 
always  the  same  as  those  of  the  inciting  en- 


44  Theories  of  Energy 

ergy,  but  in  centroatomic  energizement  the 
mannerism  or  manneric  character  of  the  in- 
cited energy  does  not  always  agree  with  that 
of  the  inciting  energy. 

In  centroatomic  energizement  the  matter 
may  become  energetic  in  the  same  manners 
as  those  which  incite  it  to  such  energy,  or  it 
may  become  energetic  in  different  manners, 
and  it  may  become  energetic  in  the  same 
mannery  as  the  inciting  energy,  or  it  may 
become  energetic  in  a  different  mannery. 

The  ways  in  which  matter  is  energized  in 
this  respect  may  be  called  the  Modes  of 
energizement,  which,  as  stated,  occur  only  in 
connection  with  centroatomic  energizement. 

Probably  in  most  cases  of  centroatomic 
energizement  the  matter  is  incited  to  the 
same  manners  of  energy  as  those  which  incite 
it  to  such  energy,  as,  the  manners  of  the 
colour  energy  of  objects  usually  agree  with 
the  manners  of  the  light  which  incite  the 
matter  to  such  colour  energy.  This  may  be 
called  the  Homomanneric  mode  of  energize- 
ment, or  homomanneric  energizement. 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      45 

In  some  cases  of  centroatomic  energize- 
ment,  as  in  fluorescence,  the  matter  is  ener- 
gized in  other  manners  than  those  which 
incite  it  to  such  energy,  which  may  be  called 
the  Allomanneric  mode  of  energizement, 
or  allomanneric  energizement. 

In  most  cases  of  centroatomic  energize- 
ment the  matter  is  energized  in  the  same 
mannery  as  the  inciting  energy,  and  this 
may  be  referred  to  as  the  Homomannerial 
mode  of  energizement,  or  homomannerial 
energizement. 

In  some  cases,  however,  as  in  calores- 
cence  and  in  the  energizement  of  black 
matter  by  light,  the  matter  is  energized 
in  another  mannery  than  that  of  the 
inciting  energy,  and  this  may  be  referred 
to  as  the  Allomannerial  mode  of  energize- 
ment, or  allomannerial  energizement.  It  is 
by  this  mode  that  the  transformation  of 
energy  is,  under  the  theory,  supposed  to  be 
accomplished. 

It  is  evident  that  some  kinds  of  matter 
may  be  energized  centroatomically  in  one 


46  Theories  of   Energy 

mannery  by  one  quality  of  energy,  and  cen- 
troatomically  in  another  mannery  by  the 
other  quality  of  the  same  energy,  which 
may  be  referred  to  as  the  Disqualital  mode 
of  energizement,  or  disqualital  energizement. 
Differences  in  colour  are,  under  the  theory, 
supposed  to  result  from  this  mode  of  ener- 
gizement. 

It  would  seem  that  some  kinds  of  matter 
are  energizable  centroatomically  in  certain 
manners  when  incited  by  any  of  the  manners 
of  a  mannery,  and  in  some  cases  when  incited 
by  manners  of  other  manneries.  This  may 
be  referred  to  as  the  Idiomanneric  mode  of 
energizement,  or  idiomanneric  energizement. 
It  is  probable  that  colour-blindness  is  due  to 
this  mode  of  energizement. 

In  homomanneric  energizement  the  matter 
may  not  be  energized  homomannerically  by 
all  the  manners  of  the  engaging  energy,  as 
red  matter  is  homomannerically  energized 
only  by  the  red  manners,  as  we  may  say,  of 
white  light,  being  allomannerially  energized 
by  the  other  manners,  which  are  thereby 


The  Theory  of   Energizement      47 

eliminated  from  the  colour  energy,  becoming 
manners  of  heat  or  chemicity. 

THE  MOODS  OF  ENERGIZEMENT.  Gold  is 
yellow  in  colour,  and  the  colour  energy  evi- 
dently comes  from  the  superficial  atoms,  as 
shown  by  the  fact  that  if  we  place  two  or 
three  gold  leaves  together  and  hold  them 
between  the  eye  and  the  sun  no  sunlight  will 
reach  the  eye  through  them,  but  if  a  single 
gold  leaf  be  held  between  the  eye  and  the 
sun  some  light  will  reach  the  eye  through  it. 
We  may  say,  therefore,  that  the  energy  which 
gives  us  vision  of  a  piece  of  gold  comes  from 
the  atoms  to  about  the  depth  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  gold  leaf. 

Paper  of  considerable  thickness  may  be 
held  between  the  eye  and  the  sun  and  some 
light  will  reach  the  eye  through  it,  which 
shows  that  the  colour  energy  which  gives 
vision  of  paper  comes  from  a  much  greater 
depth  than  in  the  case  of  gold. 

While  the  depth  from  which  the  colour 
energy  of  opaque  matter  comes  is  different 
in  different  substances,  it  comes  from  a 


48  Theories  of   Energy 

limited  depth  in  all  kinds,  and  since  such 
atoms  are  energized  without  the  other  atoms 
in  the  body  being  similarly  energized,  it  may 
be  called  a  Mood  of  energizement. 

When  only  a  limited  portion  of  a  body  is 
energized,  or  when  the  body  must  be  small 
or  thin  in  order  to  be  energized  throughout, 
it  may  be  called  the  Limited  mood  of  ener- 
gizement, or  limited  energizement,  and  the 
matter  may  be  said  to  be  limitedly  energized. 

When  a  piece  of  iron  is  heated  at  one  point 
it  becomes  hot  throughout.  The  matter  is 
centroatomically  energetic  and  the  energy  is 
communicated  from  atom  to  atom  so  that 
the  atoms  in  the  whole  body  or  in  a  consider- 
able portion  of  it  become  energetic  together. 
This  may  be  called  the  Comprehensive  mood 
of  energizement,  or  comprehensive  energize- 
ment, and  the  matter  may  be  said  to  be 
comprehensively  energized. 

ENERGIZABILITY.  The  susceptibility  of 
matter  to  energizement,  either  centroatomic- 
ally or  transatomically,  by  the  different  man- 
ners of  energy,  whereby  it  is  energizable 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      49 

centroatomically  by  some  manners  and  not 
by  others,  and  whereby  it  is  energizable  trans- 
atomically  by  some  manners  and  not  by 
others,  may  be  called  its  Energizability. 

ENERGIZATIVITY.  The  energizative  power 
of  energy — that  is,  the  power  of  energy  to 
energize  matter,  centroatomically  or  trans- 
atomically,  may  be  called  its  Energizativity. 

The  energizativity  depends  largely  on  the 
mannerism  of  the  energy,  and  since  the  man- 
nerism of  the  energy  depends  on  the  energitia 
of  the  matter  in  which  the  energy  is  gene- 
rated, it  is  proper,  speaking  metonymically 
at  least,  to  apply  the  term  Energizativity 
to  such  matter  also. 

Some  kinds  of  atomic  matter,  such  as  the 
air,  are  energizable  centroatomically  by 
some  of  the  manners  of  the  engaging  energy, 
and  at  the  same  time  they  are  energizable 
transatomically  by  the  other  manners  thereof, 
and  when  the  engaging  energy  is  light,  the 
result  is  translucency  and  transparency. 

The  air  transmits  most  of  the  manners  of 
the  sunlight,  being  transparent  as  to  them, 


50  Theories  of   Energy 

and  it  is  energized  centroatomically  by  the 
other  manners  thereof,  being  translucent 
as  to  them,  and,  under  the  theory,  the  day- 
light or  skylight  is  supposed  to  result  from 
such  centroatomic  energizement  of  the  air 
and  atmospheric  dust  particles  (see  experi- 
ment in  Chapter  XV,  showing  interference 
in  daylight),  and  the  blueness  of  the  sky  is 
the  colour  effect  of  such  atmospheric  energy, 
for  all  light  energy  has  some  colour  effect  (17). 

Translucent  matter  is  always  transparent 
to  some  degree,  the  transparent  quality 
making  it  possible  for  the  centroatomic 
energy  to  be  transmitted  from  the  points 
in  the  interior  of  the  body  to  its  surface. 
The  light  so  generated  gives  vision  in  all 
directions  of  the  matter  in  which  it  is  gene- 
rated, both  at  the  surface  and  in  the  interior 
of  the  body,  showing  that  the  densitic  form  is 
spherical. 

Transparent  matter  is  energized  transmis- 
sively,  while  in  translucent  bodies  some  of  the 
matter  is  energized  centroatomically,  and 
the  energy  of  such  matter  is  transmitted 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      51 

transatomicaliy  by  the  other  matter,  which 
is  transparent,  the  presence  of  more  than  one 
substance  being  necessary  to  translucency. 
Translucent  matter  is  visible  from  all  direc- 
tions when  light  is  transmitted  through  it 
in  a  single  direction;  whereas  transparent 
matter  is  invisible. 

Thin  bodies  of  opaque  matter  transmit 
some  light,  but  they  are  not  transparent  on 
that  account.  The  superficial  atoms  engaged 
by  the  light  are  energized  centroatomically 
thereby,  but  such  centroatomic  energy  is 
not  transmitted  through  the  other  atoms. 
The  atoms  energized  by  the  light  energize 
centroatomically  the  atoms  in  contact  with 
them,  and  these  in  turn  energize  centroatomi- 
cally the  atoms  in  contact  with  them,  and 
so  on  through  the  body,  the  energy  of  the. 
atoms  at  the  opposite  surface  being  imparted 
to  the  air.  Such  transmission  of  light  may 
be  called  Pelluminence.  Paper  is  Pellumi- 
nent,  and  when  oiled  it  is  translucent,  the 
oil  being  transparent. 

The  centroatomic  energizement  of  matter 


52  Theories  of   Energy 

in  this  way  may  be  called  Interatomic 
energizement,  in  contradistinction  to  Direct 
energizement,  whereby  atoms  are  energized 
directly  by  transmitted  energy  which  engages 
them. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  any  particular 
matter  is  energizable  in  the  same  way  by  the 
same  manners  of  energy,  under  all  condi- 
tions, for  it  is  obvious  that  the  energizability 
of  matter  depends  on  its  energial  condition, 
due  to  energizement  by  the  energy  of  sur- 
rounding matter  of  different  kinds  and  in 
different  energial  conditions. 

Environment  is  an  important  factor  in 
energizement. 

White  matter  is  energizable  in  all  the 
manners  of  light,  together,  separately  or  in 
any  combination,  a  white  screen  showing 
any  color  that  may  be  thrown  upon  it. 
White  matter  may  therefore  be  said  to  have 
General  energizability  in  the  manners  of 
light.  Matter  of  other  colour  is  energizable 
in  the  light  manners  of  its  colour  only,  and 
such  matter  may  therefore  be  said  to  have 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      53 

Limited  energizability  in  the  manners  of  light. 
Black  matter  is  Nonenergizable  in  the  man- 
ners of  light,  such  matter  being  energizable 
in  manners  of  heat  by  the  manners  of  light. 

THE  RADIATION  AND  ABSORPTION  OF  EN- 
ERGY. Energy,  being  a  condition  of  matter, 
cannot,  like  a  material  thing,  be  transferred 
from  one  body  to  another;  cannot,  like  a 
material  thing,  be  absorbed  by  one  body 
out  of  another.  A  condition  can  only  be 
incited  or  changed  and  under  the  theory 
this  is  accomplished  through  energizement. 

Radiation  of  energy  is  the  incitation  of 
energy  in  other  matter,  transmissively  or 
centroatomically,  and  the  incitement  of 
matter  to  centroatomic  energy  by  the  energy 
of  other  matter  is  the  absorption  of  energy, 
the  energy  radiated  by  such  matter  in  turn 
affecting  the  other  matter,  and  if  it  be  of  a 
lower  order  of  energy,  the  energy  of  the 
other  matter  is  degraded  thereby. 

Not  only  is  the  less  energetic  matter 
affected  by  the  energy  of  the  more  energetic 
matter,  but  the  latter  is  also  affected  by  the 


54  Theories  of  Energy 

energy  of  the  former,  for,  under  the  theory, 
every  particle  and  body  of  matter  is  affected 
by  the  energy  of  other  particles  and  bodies. 
This  may  be  called  Reciprocal  energizement, 
and  it  plays  an  important  part  in  the  radia- 
tion and  absorption  of  energy,  giving  rise 
to  the  Theory  of  Exchanges  (18). 

When  cold  water  is  mixed  with  hot  water 
the  mixture  takes  an  average  temperature, 
the  equalization  of  temperature  being  ac- 
complished through  reciprocal  energizement, 
and  if  the  average  temperature  of  the  mixture 
is  abnormal,  either  above  or  below  the  tem- 
perature prevailing  at  the  place  at  the  time, 
the  temperature  of  the  mixture  gradually 
changes  until  it  is  normal,  such  change  being 
brought  about  through  energizement  by  the 
energy  of  the  surrounding  matter,  the  air, 
the  ground,  and  the  objects  thereabout. 
Reciprocal  energizement  occurs  in  such  a 
case,  and  that  prolongs  the  process  of 
equalization. 

The  atmosphere  of  a  planet  is  energized 
centroatomically  and  comprehensively  by 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      55 

some  of  the  manners  of  the  sunlight,  depend- 
ing on  the  elements  of  which  the  atmosphere 
is  composed,  and  such  energy  is  radiated, 
being  the  light  by  which  the  planet  is  seen. 
When  there  is  no  atmosphere,  as  in  the  cases 
of  Mercury  and  the  moon,  the  solid  matter 
is  energized  centroatomically  and  limitedly 
by  some  of  the  manners  of  the  sunlight,  and 
such  energy  is  also  radiated,  being  the  prin- 
cipal light  by  which  such  bodies  are  seen  (19). 

A  body  with  an  atmosphere  radiates  much 
more  light  than  one  without  an  atmosphere, 
their  sizes  being  the  same,  because  more 
matter  participates  in  the  radiation,  and  the 
denser  the  atmosphere,  and  the  greater  the 
number  of  elements  composing  the  same, 
the  greater  the  radiation,  because  the  greater 
is  the  number  of  manners  of  the  sunlight 
energizing  the  same. 

The  albedo  of  Mercury  is  13;  that  of  the 
moon  is  17 ;  that  of  Mars,  with  his  rare  atmos- 
phere, probably  containing  but  few  ele- 
ments, is  26;  and  that  of  Jupiter,  with  his 
dense  atmosphere,  probably  containing  many 


56  Theories  of   Energy 

elements,  is  75.  The  numbers  represent  the 
ratios  of  radiation. 

THE  ENERGIAL  IMPRESSIBILITY  OF  MAT- 
TER. There  is  much  evidence  to  support 
the  idea  of  the  energial  impressibility  of 
matter;  indeed,  if  there  were  no  other  ex- 
amples, our  own  susceptibility  to  physical 
and  mental  training  would  be  sufficient. 

By  energial  impressibility  is  meant  the 
susceptibility  of  matter  to  being  impressed, 
as  we  may  say,  so  as  to  become  energetic 
more  readily  in  some  particular  way,  man- 
nerically,  methodically,  moodically  or  mod- 
ally,  on  account  of  having  previously  been 
so  energetic,  or  it  is  the  susceptibility  to 
being  impressed  so  as  to  continue  in  action 
in  some  particular  way  which  has  been 
impressed  upon  it. 

As  an  example  of  the  first  kind:  When  a 
vulcanite  comb  is  rubbed  at  one  end  for  a 
short  time  it  does  not  develop  the  power  of 
attraction  throughout,  but  if  so  rubbed  for  a 
long  time  it  does  develop  the  power  through- 
out, and  if  the  energetic  condition  be  then 


The  Theory  of  Energizement      57 

allowed  to  subside,  when  it  is  again  rubbed 
as  before  the  power  of  attraction  is  readily 
developed  throughout  the  comb. 

As  an  example  of  the  latter  kind:  The 
energy  in  a  magnet  which  gives  rise  to  polar- 
ity acts  in  a  certain  way,  established  at  the 
time  of  magnetization,  and  the  matter  con- 
tinues so  to  act  as  long  as  it  is  such  magnet, 
the  poles  being  maintained  at  their  respective 
ends. 

The  condition  which  is  thus  impressed  on 
matter,  and  the  state  of  being  so  impressed, 
may  be  called  Impressure,  and  the  matter 
may  be  said  to  act  in  such  way  through,  or 
on  account  of,  impressure,  and  may  be  said 
to  be  in  a  state  of  impressure. 

Impressure  is  energitial  modification  of  a 
lasting  nature. 

Different  kinds  of  matter  have  different 
energial  impressibilities.  One  kind  may  be 
impressible  to  some  particular  way  of  action, 
while  another  kind  may  not  be  to  the  same 
way  of  action,  but  may  be  to  some  other  way. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    THEORY    OF    THE    SPECTRAL    LINES 

'"FHE  Fraunhofer  lines  of  the  spectrum  do 
•*•  not  represent  the  utter  extinction  of 
parts  of  the  light,  but  they  merely  represent 
a  decrease  in  the  intensity  of  some  of  the 
manners  of  the  light,  and  the  reason  for  such 
decrease  is  readily  understood  under  the 
theory  of  energizement. 

The  velocity  of  light  is  not  only  different 
in  different  media,  giving  rise  to  refraction, 
but  the  velocities  of  the  different  manners 
are  different  in  the  same  medium,  so  that 
the  ratios  of  velocities  of  the  different  man- 
ners in  any  two  media  are  different,  the  dis- 
persion of  the  colours  through  refraction 
being  due  to  this  fact. 

The  subject  of  colour  will  be  considered  in 
58 


Theory  of  the  Spectral  Lines      59 

a  subsequent  chapter.  Here  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  say,  that,  under  the  theory,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  different  manners  repre- 
sent different  hues,  so  that  when  the  differ- 
ent manners  of  light  are  separated  in  the 
spectrum  of  high  dispersion,  decrease  in  the 
intensity  of  any  of  the  manners  becomes 
apparent. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  when 
light  passes  through  a  gas  or  vapour,  the  gas 
or  vapour  is  energized  centroatomically  by 
some  of  the  manners  of  the  light,  depending 
on  the  energizability  of  the  matter,  different 
substances  being  energizable  by  different 
manners,  a  substance  being  especially  ener- 
gizable, centroatomically,  by  the  manners 
which  agree  with  the  manners  of  its  own 
energy  when  augmented,  all  other  manners 
being  transmitted  transatomically,  being  the 
misceous  method  of  energizement. 

The  manners  of  light  which  energize  the 
gaseous  matter  centroatomically  spend  them- 
selves in  such  energizement,  being  thereby 
eliminated  from  the  transmitted  light,  and 


60  Theories  of   Energy 

their  places  in  the  transmitted  light  are  taken 
by  the  manners  of  the  centroatomic  energy, 
and  when  the  energizement  is  homomanneric 
the  manners  agree  with  the  eliminated  man- 
ners, except  in  intensity,  the  intensity  of  the 
incited  centroatomic  energy  being  less  than 
that  of  the  inciting  energy,  just  as  the  in- 
tensity of  the  colour  energy  of  an  object  is  less 
than  that  of  the  light  which  incites  the  matter 
to  such  energy.  When  the  energizement  is 
allomanneric  the  manners  of  the  centro- 
atomic energy  do  not  agree  with  the  elimi- 
nated manners,  and  in  such  cases  they  do  not 
take  the  places  of  the  eliminated  manners  in 
the  spectrum,  but  occupy  other  places  therein, 
leaving  dark  spaces  which  have  no  signifi- 
cance, probably  interfering  with  the  spectra 
of  other  substances  and  causing  confusion 
in  the  spectral  lines  (20). 

The  light  beyond  the  gas  includes  some  of 
the  original  light  and  also  the  light  generated 
by  the  gas  under  such  energizement,  and  the 
two  being  of  different  intensities,  the  portions 
of  the  spectrum  formed  by  the  latter  are 


Theory  of  the  Spectral  Lines      61 

much  darker  than  those  formed  by  the  for- 
mer, and  these  darker  portions  are  the 
Fraunhofer  lines,  which,  as  before  said,  are 
not  due  to  an  entire  absence  of  light  from  those 
portions  of  the  spectrum  where  they  appear, 
such  portions  being  dark  merely  by  contrast 
with  the  brighter  portions  (21). 

During  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  the  bright 
portions  of  the  solar  spectrum  become  black, 
and  the  dark  portions  become  bright.  When 
totality  occurs  the  change  can  be  clearly 
seen,  the  dark  lines  flashing  out  brightly 
when  the  bright  lines  become  black. 

The  body  of  the  sun,  the  photosphere, 
which  is  the  origin  of  the  sunlight,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  gaseous  envelope,  the  chromo- 
sphere, and  all  the  light  from  the  photosphere 
must  engage  the  chromosphere.  Some  of 
the  manners  of  the  light  are  transmitted 
transatomically  through  the  chromosphere, 
while  others  energize  the  chromospheric 
matter  centroatomically. 

The  chromospheric  energy  is  light  energy 
of  a  lower  luminosity  than  that  which  is 


62  Theories  of  Energy 

transmitted  directly,  and  it  is  propagated 
out  into  space  along  with  the  rest  of  the 
light. 

That  the  light  in  the  dark  lines  is  the  centro- 
atomic  energy  of  the  chromospheric  matter 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  during  a  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun  only  the  portion  of  the 
chromosphere  which  is  at  the  sun's  limb  can 
be  seen,  and  it  is  the  light  from  that  portion 
which  forms  the  chromospheric  spectrum 
during  the  eclipse. 

The  light  from  the  photosphere  which 
passes  through  that  portion  of  the  chromo- 
sphere has  a  direction  about  at  right  angles 
to  the  line  between  the  sun  and  the  earth, 
so  that  the  light  coming  to  the  earth  from 
that  portion  of  the  chromosphere  must  pro- 
ceed about  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  light  from  the  photosphere  which 
energizes  that  portion  of  the  chromosphere, 
showing  that  the  densitic  form  of  the  chromo- 
spheric light  is  spherical,  which  would  be 
the  densitic  form  of  the  centroatomic  energy 
of  the  energized  gas. 


Theory  of  the  Spectral  Lines      63 

The  solar  spectrum  does  not  indicate  the 
presence  in  the  sun  of  all  the  elements  of 
which  we  know,  or  at  least  the  spectra  of  all 
the  elements  of  which  we  know  cannot  be 
identified  in  the  solar  spectrum. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  fact  that 
the  matter  of  which  the  sun  and  planets  are 
composed  was  at  one  time  a  nebulous  mass, 
in  which  the  different  substances  were  most 
likely  mixed  and  scattered  throughout  the 
mass,  it  is  supposable  that  all  the  elements 
should  exist  in  the  sun,  and  it  is  also  sup- 
posable that  the  chromosphere  should  contain 
gases  of  all  such  elements,  but  of  course  it 
may  not,  or  at  least  not  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  make  their  presence  apparent  through 
the  spectrum. 

But  however  this  may  be,  under  the  theory 
of  energizement  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how,  in  such  an  environment,  subject  to  the 
energies  of  many  other  substances,  a  sub- 
stance may  have  its  energitia  so  modified  as 
to  produce  an  unrecognizable  spectrum  (22). 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  THEORY  OF  ENERGIAL  MOTION 

^\  1  7E  are  confronted  on  every  hand  with 
*  *  moving  matter ;  we  see  one  particle  or 
body  of  matter  move  this  way  or  that  under 
the  influence  of  other  particles  or  bodies  with- 
out any  material  attachment  between  them, 
and  we  see  the  particles  in  an  aggregation  of 
highly  energetic  particles,  such  as  in  a  heated 
liquid,  in  great  commotion,  flying  hither  and 
thither  and  away,  and  when  restrained,  ex- 
erting great  force  in  an  effort  to  escape. 

That  energy  is  the  cause  of  such  motion 
is  certain,  but  no  explanation  has  been  offered 
of  the  manner  in  which  matter  is  actuated 
to  motion  by  energy,  and  the  theory  of 
energial  motion  (23)  is  advanced  in  explana- 
tion thereof. 

64 


The  Theory  of  Energial  Motion    65 

It  may  be  truly  said  that  the  movement  of 
matter  by  its  own  energy,  incited  of  course 
by  the  energy  of  other  matter,  underlies  all 
the  principal  phenomena  of  the  world.  It 
underlies  the  formation  of  molecules  and  the 
formation  of  bodies  and  worlds;  to  it  are 
due  the  axial  rotation  of  the  astral  bodies, 
the  motion  of  bodies  under  gravity,  and  the 
attraction  and  repulsion  of  matter  by  the 
magnet,  and  to  it  are  due  the  motions  of 
particles  in  chemical  reaction,  combustion, 
explosion,  evaporation,  and  atomic  dissemi- 
nation. 

As  explained  in  a  preceding  chapter,  energy 
being  biqualital,  it  is  supposed,  under  the 
theory  of  energizement,  that  matter  may  be 
energized  centroatomically  by  one  quality 
(either  quality),  and  transatomically  by  the 
other,  this  being  the  kinetic  method  of  ener- 
gizement, and  under  the  theory  it  is  supposed 
that  the  transatomic  energy  so  incited  causes 
the  matter  to  move. 

Of  course  an  atom  cannot  be  actuated  to 
motion  by  centroatomic  energy,  whether  the 


66  Theories  of  Energy 

energy  be  biqualital  or  not,  because  the 
actions  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  centre 
are  equal  and  in  opposite  directions,  whether 
apocentral  or  proscentral,  and  when  both 
qualities  of  transatomic  energy  are  present 
the  actions  are  equal  and  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, so  that  matter  cannot  be  actuated  to 
motion  by  biqualital  transatomic  energy, 
but  if  one  quality  of  the  transatomic  energy 
be  eliminated,  then,  since  all  the  matter  in 
the  atom  moves  in  one  direction  only,  the 
atom  must  of  course  move  in  that  direction. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  kinetic  energy  (24) 
must  be  transatomic  and  uniqualital. 

Owing  to  the  surrounded  condition  of 
particles  and  bodies  of  matter,  we  may  say, 
speaking  generally,  that  energial  motion 
results  from  a  preponderance  of  action  in 
the  direction  of  motion  in  any  case,  or  that 
it  is  the  result  of  actions  in  diverse  directions, 
the  motion  being  in  the  line  of  the  resultant, 
rather  than  that  the  action  is  only  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  motion  is,  although  in 
some  cases  this  may  be  about  true. 


The  Theory  of  Energial  Motion    67 

In  a  solid  body  the  atoms  occupy  fixed 
positions  as  to  each  other,  but  for  the  purpose 
of  explanation  we  may  consider  that  the 
atoms  composing  a  body  might  be  close  to- 
gether, but  not  actually  touching,  each 
being  free.  It  is  clear  that  if  all  such  free 
atoms  move  in  one  direction,  the  whole  ag- 
gregation of  atoms  would  move  in  that  direc- 
tion, and  if  the  atoms  all  move  at  the  same 
speed,  they  would  maintain  their  relative 
positions,  and  the  form  of  the  aggregation 
would  not  suffer  any  change.  If,  while  the 
atoms  were  so  moving  together  in  the  same 
direction  and  at  the  same  speed,  maintain- 
ing their  relative  positions,  cohesion  should 
take  place  between  them,  the  motion  of 
the  aggregation  would  not  be  interfered 
with. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  if  the  kinetic  energy 
in  all  the  atoms  of  a  body  preponderate  in 
any  direction,  the  body  will  move  in  that 
direction,  and  we  may  take  it  as  a  fact  that 
in  energial  motion  the  motion  of  the  particles 
composing  a  moving  body  is  taken  up  in  the 


68  Theories  of   Energy 

motion  of  the  body,  the  particles  remaining 
stationary  as  to  each  other. 

Now,  since  there  are  two  qualities  of  energy, 
under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the  trans- 
atomic  energy  arising  in  matter  under  kinetic 
energizement  may  be  of  either  quality,  posi- 
tive or  negative,  and  since  the  movements 
of  matter  are  in  opposite  directions  in  the 
two  qualities,  the  motions  in  the  two  cases 
will  of  course  be  in  opposite  directions. 

If  the  transatomic  energy  be  positive,  the 
motion  will  be  away  from  the  point  of  genera- 
tion of  the  inciting  energy,  and  if  it  be  nega- 
tive, the  motion  will  be  toward  the  point  of 
generation  of  the  inciting  energy.  Repul- 
sion will  occur  in  the  one  case,  and  attraction 
in  the  other. 

When  repulsion  occurs  we  may  say  that 
the  kinetic  energy  is  Repulsive*  in  its  action, 
and  that  the  matter  is  repulsively  energized, 
and  when  attraction  occurs  we  may  say  that 
the  kinetic  energy  is  Attractive  in  its  action, 
and  that  the  matter  is  attractively  energized. 

Since  different  substances  have  different 


The  Theory  of  Energial  Motion    69 

energizabilities,  and  since  energy  differs 
mannerically,  the  different  forms  of  energy 
being  due  to  manneric  differences,  by  the 
theory  we  are  enabled  to  understand  why 
the  different  forms  of  energy  produce  differ- 
ent effects,  attractive  and  repulsive,  and  why 
the  same  form  of  energy  produces  different 
effects,  attractive  and  repulsive,  in  different 
substances  or  in  the  same  substance  under 
different  conditions,  and  we  are  also  enabled 
to  understand  why  kinetic  energy  varies  in 
strength  in  different  substances,  and  why  it 
varies  in  strength  in  the  same  substance  as 
the  manneric  character  of  the  energy  varies. 
It  is  commonly  supposed  that  all  atomic 
matter  is  always  energized  attractively  by 
gravity,  and  the  paramagnetic  substances 
are  energized  attractively  by  magnetism, 
while  the  diamagnetic  substances  are  ener- 
gized repulsively  thereby.  Depending  on 
the  conditions,  atomic  matter  is  sometimes 
energized  repulsively  by  heat  and  chemicity, 
and  at  other  times  it  is  energized  attractively 
thereby. 


70  Theories  of  Energy 

Now,  it  is  obvious  that  if  the  densits  of 
the  kinetic  energy  are  far  apart,  only  part 
of  the  matter  in  the  engaged  body  will  move 
at  a  time,  and  that  might  not  be  sufficient  to 
give  motion  to  the  body,  or,  if  so,  the  motion 
would  be  slight,  because  there  would  be 
opportunity  for  the  matter  to  move  back  in 
the  opposite  direction,  the  opposite  densition 
arising  spontaneously  if  not  prevented  by 
quickly  succeeding  movements.  If,  however, 
the  densits  are  close  together  so  much  of  the 
matter  in  the  body  will  move  at  the  same 
time  that  there  is  but  little  opportunity  for 
the  matter  at  any  point  to  move  back,  so 
that  such  movement  of  matter  gives  motion 
to  the  body. 

In  most  cases  of  energial  motion  there  is 
probably  some  backward  movement  of  mat- 
ter, not  sufficient  to  entirely  counteract  the 
primary  movement,  but  enough  to  lessen 
the  bodily  motion. 

Densitic  congestion,  as  closeness  together 
of  the  densits  may  be  called,  is,  therefore, 
conducive  to  energial  motion. 


The  Theory  of  Energial  Motion    71 

Systems  of  different  manners  generated 
at  the  same  point,  and  systems  generated 
at  different  points  in  a  body  and  proceeding 
in  the  same  general  direction,  so  that  portions 
of  them  engage  a  body  of  matter  at  the  same 
time,  are  Concurrent  systems  of  densits. 

The  greater  the  number  of  concurrent 
systems,  the  greater  the  densitic  congestion, 
and  the  greater  the  effectiveness  of  the 
kinetic  energy. 

Polymannerism  is  especially  important  in 
connection  with  energial  motion,  because 
the  greater  the  polymannerism,  the  greater 
the  probability  that  the  matter  will  be  ener- 
gized kinetically  by  many  of  the  manners, 
and  the  greater  the  number  of  manners  in  the 
kinetic  energy,  the  greater  its  effectiveness. 

Augmented  energy  is  highly  polymanneric, 
and  the  higher  the  augmentation,  the  greater 
the  polymannerism  of  the  energy,  and  we 
therefore  see  why  energial  motion  is  common 
among  particles  having  augmented  energy. 

In  a  body  of  highly  energetic  matter,  such 
as  a  piece  of  highly  heated  iron,  there  is  un- 


72  Theories  of  Energy 

doubtedly  considerable  reciprocal  energize- 
ment  between  the  atoms  in  the  kinetic 
method,  and,  obviously,  in  such  a  case  there 
is  a  preponderance  of  kinetic  energy  in  all 
directions  away  from  the  centre  of  the  body, 
and  under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  this, 
not  being  sufficient  to  overcome  the  cohesion 
between  the  atoms,  causes  a  slight  distension 
of  the  atoms,  which  distension  results  in  the 
expansion  of  the  body. 

When  objects  or  particles  are  energized 
kinetically  and  they  are  restrained  from 
moving,  they  have  a  forcible  tendency  to 
move.  This  forcible  tendency  to  move 
under  the  action  of  gravity  is  manifested  as 
weight.  Between  the  particles  of  a  gas  or 
vapour  which  are  confined  so  that  they  can- 
not fly  apart,  the  repulsion  is  manifested  as 
pressure. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that,' 
though  the  different  kinds  of  atoms  have 
different  densities,  the  differences  in  weight 
of  the  different  substances  are  not  entirely 
due  to  differences  in  their  densities,  but  that, 


The  Theory  of  Energial  Motion    73 

owing  to  the  differences  in  density,  solidity, 
and  elasticity,  and  to  the  consequent  differ- 
ences in  their  energitias  (see  note  14)  and 
energizabilities,  the  effectiveness  of  gravitial 
energizement  is  different  in  the  different 
elements.  Under  this  conception  mass  is 
more  a  measure  of  force  than  a  measure  of 
matter. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  THEORY  OF  CHEMICAL   REACTION 

A  TOMS  possess  the  remarkable  property  of 
**  combining  with  atoms  of  other  kinds  in 
certain  numerical  ratios,  forming  molecules, 
and  the  molecules  so  formed  possess  proper- 
ties very  different  from  those  of  the  constitu- 
ent atoms  when  not  so  combined,  the  atoms 
of  a  molecule  losing  their  individual  charac- 
ters when  they  become  associated  together 
in  the  molecule. 

Molecular  formation,  molecular  change 
through  the  addition,  elimination,  or  substitu- 
tion of  atoms,  and  molecular  dissociation 
are  the  processes  by  which  remarkable 
changes  in  atomic  matter  are  accomplished. 

These  processes  are  commonly  referred  to 
as  chemical  processes,  and  the  mutual  ac- 
74 


Theory  of  Chemical  Reaction      75 

tions  of  the  atoms  by  which  these  things  are 
accomplished  are  commonly  referred  to  as 
chemical  reaction. 

Under  the  theory  of  energizement  it  is 
supposed  that  chemical  reaction  is  due  to  the 
reciprocal  energizement  of  the  atoms. 

We  have  applied  the  name  Chemicity  to 
energy  which  causes  chemical  reaction  (see 
note  13),  being  the  natural  energy  of  aggre- 
gate atomic  matter,  and  including  heat  and 
light. 

Different  manners  of  chemicity  produce 
different  chemical  effects,  and  the  same 
manners  may  produce  different  effects  in 
different  substances. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
atoms  are  actuated  together  into  the  mole- 
cule through  reciprocal  energizement  in  the 
kinetic  method,  the  atoms  being  attractively 
energized,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  dis- 
ruption of  molecules  and  the  elimination 
of  atoms  from  molecules  are  accomplished 
through  reciprocal  energizement  in  the  kinetic 
method,  the  atoms  being  repulsively  energized. 


76  Theories  of  Energy 

It  is  supposed  that  the  energitias  of  the 
atoms  of  a  molecule  are  modified  through 
reciprocal,  centroatomic  energizement,  so 
that  their  energizativities  and  energizabilities 
are  different,  and  they  have  not  the  distinc- 
tive characteristics  which  they  have  as  free 
atoms. 

It  is  supposed  that  each  kind  of  molecule 
has  a  distinctive  energitia,  or  energial  char- 
acter, the  combined  modified  energies  of  the 
constituent  atoms  being  the  energy  of  the 
molecule,  the  atoms  continuing  to  be  indi- 
vidually energetic,  for  otherwise  they  could 
not  be  separated,  the  separation  of  atoms  out 
of  molecules  being  accomplished  by  energial 
actuation  through  energizement. 

Of  course  all  the  manners  of  energy  by 
which  all  the  atoms  of  the  molecule  are,  under 
the  conditions,  energizable  transatomically, 
affect  the  molecule  as  a  whole,  so  that,  when 
kinetically  energized  thereby,  the  molecule 
moves  as  a  whole. 

Different  kinds  of  atoms  have  different 
degrees  of  chemical  affinity  for  each  other, 


Theory  of  Chemical  Reaction      77 

and  the  chemical  affinity  between  the  same 
kinds  of  atoms  may  be  different  under  differ- 
ent conditions,  and  under  some  conditions 
atoms  which  have  chemical  affinity  for  each 
other  under  other  conditions  may  be  chemi- 
cally repugnant  to  each  other. 

These  differences  are,  under  the  theory, 
due  to  the  different  energitias  of  the  different 
kinds  of  atoms,  and  to  modifications  in  their 
energizativities  and  energizabilities  through 
energizement  by  other  kinds  of  atoms  which 
are  present,  the  environment  having  much 
to  do  with  the  energizement  of  matter. 

In  the  formation  of  molecules  atoms  com- 
bine in  certain  numerical  ratios,  and  this  is 
ascribable  to  the  modifications  which  occur 
in  the  energies  and  energizabilities  of  the 
combined  atoms. 

As  soon  as  certain  numbers  of  atoms  ol  the 
different  kinds  combine,  their  energies  be- 
come so  modified,  through  modification  of 
their  energitias  by  reciprocal  energizement, 
that  the  free  atoms  of  the  same  kinds  which 
are  present  are  not  energizable  attractively  by 


78  Theories  of  Energy 

the  energy  of  the  combined  atoms,  and  the 
energizabilities  of  the  combined  atoms  be- 
come so  modified,  through  reciprocal  ener- 
gizement,  that  they  are  no  longer  energizable 
attractively  by  the  energy  of  the  free  atoms, 
so  that,  under  the  conditions,  there  is  no 
such  reciprocal  energizement  between  the 
combined  atoms  and  the  free  atoms  as  would 
bring  them  into  combination. 

In  molecular  formation  certain  conditions 
are  often  necessary  to  bring  about  the  com- 
bination, as  in  the  formation  of  the  water 
molecule  a  very  high  temperature  is  neces- 
sary. 

Under  different  conditions  different  mole- 
cules may  often  be  formed  from  the  same 
kinds  of  atoms  as  form  other  kinds  of  mole- 
cules under  other  conditions,  as  under 
different  conditions  from  those  under  which 
the  water  molecule  is  formed  two  atoms 
of  oxygen  and  two  of  hydrogen  combine, 
forming  a  molecule  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

The  energial  conditions  of  the  atoms  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  molecules  may  often 


Theory  of  Chemical  Reaction      79 

be  produced  by  the  energy  of  a  catalyzer, 
which,  without  being  affected  itself,  effects 
the  combination,  as,  platinum  causes  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  to  combine  and  form  the 
water  molecule. 

There  are  also  negative  catalyzers,  which 
bring  about  the  dissolution  of  molecules  or 
cause  the  dissociation  of  some  of  the  atoms, 
as,  gold  causes  the  dissociation  of  one  of 
the  atoms  of  oxygen  from  the  molecule  of 
peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

Combustion  and  explosion  are  caused  by 
the  remarkable  dissociating  power  of  oxygen 
at  high  temperatures.  The  energitias  of  the 
atoms  of  the  molecules  are  modified  through 
energizement  by  the  energy  of  the  oxygen, 
and,  through  reciprocal  energizement,  the 
atoms  of  the  molecule  energize  each  other 
repulsively,  instead  of  attractively,  and 
they  repel  each  other,  disrupting  the  mole- 
cule and  flying  asunder,  and  the  oxygen 
thereupon  combines  with  some  of  the  released 
atoms.  In  explosion  tLe  repulsion  is  very 
forcible  and  violent. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  THEORY  OF  GRAVITY 

VERY  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe 
attracts  every  other  particle  with  a 
force  that  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
masses  of  the  attracting  particles,  and  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  squares  of  the 
distances  between  them. 

This  is  the  Law  of  Gravitation,  established 
by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  his  Philosophic 
Naturalis  Principia  Mathematica. 

While  the  law  of  its  action  has  long  been 
understood,  the  nature  of  gravity,  and  the 
way  in  which  it  acts  on  matter,  the  method 
by  which  it  actuates  matter  to  motion,  have 
remained  unexplained.  A  number  of  theories 
have  been  advanced,  but  none  has  been 
accepted  (25). 


Theory  of  Gravity  81 

Some  look  upon  gravitation  as  a  myster- 
ious effect  without  any  explicable  cause  (26), 
but  most  physicists  consider  it  to  be  the 
effect  of  energy,  which  is  the  sensible  view. 

Under  the  theory  here  advanced  it  is  sup- 
posed that  gravity  is  a  form  of  energy,  essen- 
tially the  same  as  the  other  forms  of  energy, 
differing  from  them  only  mannerically,  it 
being  supposed  that  the  densitic  interval  is 
the  shortest,  and  the  densitic  frequency  the 
highest,  of  all  the  forms  of  energy,  and  gravity 
is  supposed  to  be  monomanneric. 

In  a  large  body  of  matter  there  must  of 
course  be  a  great  deal  of  densitic  consolida- 
tion in  gravity,  which  of  course  increases  the 
densitic  intensity,  and  which,  most  likely, 
makes  it  possible  for  gravity  to  act  over  such 
great  distances. 

Such  consolidation  affects  the  intensity 
only,  and  does  not  make  the  energy  poly- 
manneric,  but  it  is  probable  that  on  account 
of  such  consolidation,  since  it  is  not  likely 
that  all  the  densits  of  any  single  direction 
would  coincide,  there  are  densitic  combina- 

6 


82  Theories  of  Energy 

tions  of  different  intensities  in  the  gravitial 
system  of  a  large  body. 

It  is  supposed  that  every  atom  is  inherently 
and  perpetually  energetic  in  this  form  of 
energy,  which  is  looked  upon  as  the  primor- 
dial energy,  for  it  is  conceivable  how  its 
action  in  bodies  of  atomic  matter  might, 
through  reciprocal  energizement,  give  rise 
to  other  forms  of  energy,  or  to  some  other 
manner  or  manners,  from  the  action  of  which 
other  manners  arise,  and  so  on. 

The  occurrence  of  gravity  in  all  matter 
and  its  incessant  action  indicate  that  it  is 
the  primary  form  of  energy,  and  if  through 
reciprocal  gravitial  energizement  other  man- 
ners of  energy  arise,  it  would  be  the  primary 
form. 

All  other  forms  of  energy  occur  in  aggrega- 
tions of  atoms  or  in  bodies  of  atomic  matter 
in  consequence,  evidently,  of  interatomic 
energizement,  but  gravity  is  inherent  in 
each  and  every  atom,  occurring  in  each  atom 
regardless  of  the  others. 

The  other  forms  of  energy  are  changeable, 


Theory  of  Gravity  83 

the  changes  being  caused  by  changes  in  the 
relation  of  the  atoms  of  a  body,  or  in  the  rela- 
tion of  different  kinds  of  atoms,  or  in  the 
relation  of  different  bodies  as  to  each  other, 
which  clearly  shows  that  those  forms  of 
energy  are  due  to  interatomic  action.  Such 
relational  changes  of  atoms  and  bodies  do 
not  produce  any  change  in  gravity,  which 
shows  that  gravity  is  inherent  in  each  and 
every  atom,  and  that  it  is  independent  of 
interatomic  action. 

It  is  supposed  that  gravity  is  generated 
as  centroatomic  energy,  all  atoms  probably 
being  proscentrally  energetic  in  this  form  of 
energy,  and  that  it  is  densitic  in  nature,  and 
biqualital,  consisting  of  both  positive  and 
negative  densits,  the  densits  being  spherical 
in  form,  so  that  the  energy  of  each  atom 
acts  in  all  directions  from  it. 

It  must  be  supposed  that  bodies  at  a  dis- 
tance from  each  other  are  actuated  toward 
each  other  by  some  action  set  up  in  each  of 
them  by  some  action  in  the  intervening 
medium,  each  body  producing  the  action  in 


84  .Theories  of  Energy 

the  medium  which  causes  the  action  in  the 
other  body. 

We  must  therefore  take  it,  since  gravity  is 
incessant  in  its  action,  that  all  atoms  are 
incessantly  energetic  in  the  form  of  energy 
which  is  gravity;  that  the  energy  of  each 
atom  is  being  continually  imparted  to  the 
surrounding  matter  and  transmitted  away 
through  it,  and  that  other  atoms  engaged  by 
the  transmitted  energy  are  incited  to  such 
a  method  of  action  as  causes  them  to  move 
toward  the  atom  from  which  the  inciting 
energy  comes. 

Gravity  being  biqualital,  under  the  theory 
it  is  supposed  that  both  qualities  are  trans- 
missible through  the  ether,  but  that  only  the 
negative  quality  is  transmissible  through 
atomic  matter,  the  positive  quality  energiz- 
ing the  matter  centroatomically.  In  other 
-words,  all  atomic  matter  is  energized  by 
gravity  attractively  in  the  kinetic  method 

(2.7).  " 
Gravity,  like  the  other  forms  of  energy, 

varies  in  intensity  inversely  as  the  squares 


Theory  of  Gravity  85 

of  the  distances  over  which  it  is  transmitted, 
and  if  it  is  true,  as  commonly  supposed,  that 
gravity  suffers  no  deterioration  in  trans- 
mission through  bodies  of  atomic  matter, 
other  than  the  natural  decrease  in  intensity 
due  to  the  increase  in  densitic  expanse  with 
distance,  it  must  be  that  the  matter  acts 
naturally  to  it  without  resistance. 

Gravity  evidently  has  the  same  velocity 
in  all  matter,  for  otherwise  there  would  be 
refraction  in  passing  at  an  angle  from  one 
kind  of  matter  to  another. 

What  the  velocity  of  gravity  is  cannot  be 
said.  It  is  thought  that  its  velocity  must 
be  millions  of  times  greater  than  that  of 
light;  that  its  transmission  between  the  sun 
and  the  earth  must  be  instantaneous,  for 
otherwise,  it  is  said,  the  effect  of  the  time  of 
transmission  between  the  sun  and  the  earth 
would  cause  a  noticeable  variation  in  the 
earth's  period  of  revolution. 

The  solar  gravity  is  being  continually 
transmitted  away  from  the  sun  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  the  earth  and  other  planets  are 


86  Theories  of  Energy 

always  in  the  field  of  solar  gravity,  notwith- 
standing their  motions. 

If  the  sun  and  the  earth  were  both  sta- 
tionary in  space  of  course  gravity  would 
always  act  in  a  line  between  the  centres  of 
the  two  bodies. 

The  earth  travels  in  its  orbit  around  the 
sun  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  miles  a 
day,  and  it  takes  light  about  eight  minutes 
to  reach  the  earth  from  the  sun,  so  that  if 
gravity  has  the  same  velocity  as  light,  the 
terrestrial  gravity  acts  on  the  sun  from  a 
point  about  nine  thousand  miles  behind  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  but  this  would  not  have 
any  effect  on  the  earth,  and  any  effect  which 
it  might  have  on  the  sun  would  be  inde- 
terminable. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  solar 
system  is  moving  through  space  with  a  speed 
of  about  sixteen  miles  a  second,  and  if  this 
is  true,  with  a  gravitial  velocity  equal  to  that 
of  light,  the  solar  gravity  acts  on  the  earth 
from  a  point  about  7500  miles  behind  the 
centre  of  the  sun,  and  owing  to  the  eccen- 


Theory  of  Gravity  87 

tricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  the  centre  of  solar 
gravitation  is  not  fixed  as  to  the  centre  of 
the  sun,  but  it  varies  very  slightly  during 
each  revolution  of  the  earth. 

This  simply  means  that  the  centre  of  the 
sun  is  not  the  centre  of  gravitation  as  to  the 
earth,  and  the  earth's  revolution  is  as  to  such 
centre  of  gravitation,  and  not  as  to  the  centre 
of  the  sun,  and  since  we  are  not  able  to  deter- 
mine the  distance  between  the  sun  and  the 
earth  exactly  by  many  thousands  of  miles,  we 
are  not  able  to  determine  exactly  where  the 
centre  of  gravitation  is  as  to  the  earth. 

The  fact  that  the  centre  of  solar  gravitation 
does  not  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  sun 
can  make  no  difference  in  the  period  of  revo- 
lution of  the  earth,  and  any  variation  in  the 
position  of  the  centre  of  solar  gravitation 
occurs  the  same  during  every  revolution  of 
the  earth,  so  that  if  it  have  any  effect  on  the 
period  of  revolution,  the  same  effect  occurs 
during  every  revolution,  and  so  it  is  not 
detectable,  for  the  period  of  revolution  is  not 
variable. 


88  Theories  of  Energy 

Owing  to  the  great  eccentricity  of  Mer- 
cury's orbit,  it  may  be  that  the  secular  per- 
turbation in  its  perihelion  is  due  to  the  time 
element  in  the  transmission  of  gravity,  for 
the  centre  of  solar  gravitation  as  to  Mercury 
changes  to  such  an  extent  during  each 
revolution  that  a  noticeable  variation  in 
the  form  of  the  planet's  orbit  may  be 
produced. 

The  period  of  revolution  of  the  planet  is 
not  affected,  but  the  perihelion  of  the  orbit 
moves  forward  faster  than  it  should  under 
the  law  of  gravitation,  which  fact  has  led 
some  astronomers  to  doubt  the  exactitude  of 
the  law  of  gravitation. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  immaterial  whether 
mass  is  the  same  as  quantity  of  matter  or 
not.  Gravity  produces  a  certain  effect  in 
each  different  substance,  and  the  mass  of  the 
substance  is  determined  from  that  effect. 
If  that  effect  depends  on  the  quantity  of 
matter  alone,  then  mass  is  the  same  as  quan- 
tity of  matter,  but  if  the  effect  depends  to 
any  extent  on  anything  else,  as  on  the  solidity 


Theory  of  Gravity  89 

and  elasticity  of  the  atoms,  then  mass  is  not 
the  same  as  quantity  of  matter. 

It  is  a  matter  that  cannot  be  determined. 
The  theory  conforms  to  the  law  of  gravita- 
tion in  all  respects  in  any  event. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  THEORY  OF  MAGNETISM 

T  TNDER  this  theory  magnetism  is  sup- 
^  posed  to  be  energy,  and  since,  as  has 
been  said,  all  energy  is  supposed  to  be  essen- 
tially the  same,  no  radical  distinction  can 
be  made  between  magnetism  and  any  other 
energy  which  causes  attraction  or  repulsion, 
but  since  magnetism  has  always  been  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  magnet,  we 
shall  confine  our  considerations  here  to  the 
energy  which  is  generated  in  the  magnet. 

The  energy  is  supposed  to  be  generated  cen- 
troatomically  in  the  iron,  being  the  natural 
energy  of  the  iron,  modified  by  the  energy  of 
the  substance  with  which  the  iron  is  com- 
bined in  molecules,  and  augmented  through 
a  certain  method  of  reciprocal  energizement. 
90 


Theory  of  Magnetism  91 

Magnetism  is  supposed  to  be  biqualital 
and  polymanneric,  and  both  qualities  of  all 
the  manners  are  supposed  to  be  transmis- 
sible through  the  ether,  and,  since  magnetism 
acts  directly  through  all  atomic  substances 
which  are  not  ordinarily  affected  by  the 
magnet,  it  is  supposed  that  the  manners 
of  magnetism  are  transmissible,  transatomi- 
cally,  through  such  substances,  so  that 
magnetizable  bodies  beyond  bodies  of  such 
matter  are  affected  directly  by  the  energy 
from  the  magnet. 

It  is  supposed  that  when  matter  is  magnet- 
ized it  is  energized  centroatomically,  and  if 
the  energizement  be  in  the  comprehensive 
mood,  as  it  is  in  magnetic  iron  and  steel, 
the  centroatomic  energy  is  imparted  to  the 
medium  beyond,  and  so  takes  the  place  of 
the  energy  from  the  magnet  spent  in  such 
energizement,  and  in  this  way  other  magnet- 
izable bodies  beyond  such  bodies  are  affected 
indirectly  by  the  magnetic  energy. 

It  is  said  that  all  atomic  substances  are 
affected  in  the  strong  magnetic  field,  being 


92  Theories  of  Energy 

either  attracted  or  repelled,  paramagnetic 
substances  being  attracted,  and  diamagnetic 
substances  being  repelled. 

Iron,  nickel,  cobalt,  titanium,  manganese, 
and  chromium  are  the  principal  paramagnetic 
substances,  and  bismuth  and  silver  are 
usually  referred  to  as  the  two  most  strongly 
diamagnetic  substances. 

Attention  is  called  to  this  remarkable 
fact:  Iron  has  more  lines  in  its  spectrum 
than  any  other  substance,  over  two  thousand. 
Next  to  iron  in  this  respect  comes  nickel; 
next  comes  titanium;  next  comes  manga- 
nese; next  comes  chromium,  and  next  comes 
cobalt,  with  over  two  hundred. 

This  must  be  taken  as  being  more  than  a 
bare  coincidence,  and  it  is  in  accordance 
with  the  theory  of  energial  motion,  as  ex- 
plained in  Chapter  VI. 

The  energy  of  iron  evidently  has  greater 
polymannerism  than  that  of  any  other  sub- 
stance, and  under  the  theory  it  is  supposed 
that  magnetism  is  highly  polymanneric ;  hence 
its  great  effectiveness  as  kinetic  energy. 


Theory  of  Magnetism  93 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
energy  of  a  magnet,  being  biqualital,  ener- 
gizes matter  in  the  kinetic  method,  energiz- 
ing paramagnetic  substances  attractively,  and 
energizing  diamagnetic  substances  repul- 
sively, different  substances  being  so  ener- 
gized by  different  numbers  of  manners,  steel 
probably  being  so  energized  by  all  the  man- 
ners, while  other  substances  are  so  energized 
by  very  few  manners,  the  kinetic  effect  de- 
pending on  the  number  of  systems  in  the 
kinetic  energy. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that 
a  magnet  is  energetic  centroatomically  in 
both  qualities  of  energy,  the  iron  atoms  of 
the  molecules  especially  being  so  energetic, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  the  centroatomic 
energy  of  the  iron  is  transmitted  transatomi- 
cally  in  a  certain  direction  through  the 
magnet  by  the  other  atoms  of  the  molecules, 
which  transatomic  energy  in  turn  energizes 
the  iron  atoms  centroatomically,  being  the 
polar  method  of  energizement. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  transatomic  energy 


94  Theories  of  Energy 

gives  rise  to  polarity,  it  being  supposed  that 
the  positive  densition  acts  in  a  single  direc- 
tion, toward  the  positive  end  of  the  magnet, 
and  that  the  negative  densition  acts  in  a 
single  direction,  toward  the  negative  end  of 
the  magnet.  The  experiments  on  which  this 
supposition  is  based  are  described  in  the 
next  chapter. 

The  transatomic  energy  and  densition  in 
a  magnet  may  be  referred  to  as  the  Polar 
energy  and  densition,  that  which  acts  toward 
the  positive  pole  being  Positive  polar  energy 
and  densition,  and  that  which  acts  toward  the 
negative  pole  being  Negative  polar  energy 
and  densition. 

Since  the  positive  polar  densition  acts 
from  all  points  in  the  magnet  to  one  end  of 
the  magnet,  there  is  a  densitic  cumulation 
at  that  end,  and,  all  the  positive  movements 
being  toward  that  end,  that  end  is  the  positive 
pole,  and  the  opposite  end,  toward  which 
the  negative  densition  acts  (the  same  acting 
to  the  points  of  generation,  so  that  it  all  does 
not  act  to  the  end),  is  the  negative  pole. 


Theory  of  Magnetism  95 

It  is  remarkable  that  polarity  can  become 
established  only  in  a  compound  of  iron,  some 
other  substance,  such  as  oxygen  or  carbon, 
being  combined  with  the  iron,  and,  such  being 
the  case,  it  is  supposed  that  in  the  polar 
method  of  energizement  one  kind  of  atom  is 
energized  centroatomically,  and  the  other 
kind  transatomically. 

In  the  magnet  the  direction  of  the  polar 
energy,  and  the  directions  of  the  qualities 
thereof,  are  established  at  the  time  of  magnet- 
ization, the  direction  of  the  densition  being 
determined  by  some  peculiarity  of  the  body  of 
matter,  physical,  structural,  or  dimensional, 
the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  different 
atoms  of  the  molecules  as  to  direction,  differ- 
ent elasticities  in  different  directions,  or 
different  dimensions  in  different  directions, 
or  being  determined  by  the  way  in  which  the 
magnetizing  energy  is  applied  during  magnet- 
ization. 

It  is  clear  that  the  directions  of  the  quali- 
ties of  the  polar  energy  are  etablished  in  the 
last-mentioned  way. 


96  Theories  of  Energy 

Once  established,  the  polar  densition  con- 
tinues to  act  in  the  established  directions 
under  methodic  impressure. 

Under  the  theory  the  centroatomic  energy 
is  the  energy  which  effects  the  attraction 
and  repulsion  of  matter,  the  polar  energy 
maintaining,  through  energizement,  the  high 
state  of  energy  in  the  iron  atoms  and  affect- 
ing the  energitia  of  the  matter,  making  the 
energizability  of  the  matter  at  one  end  of 
the  magnet  different  from  that  of  the  matter 
at  the  other  end,  and  making  the  centro- 
atomic energy  generated  at  one  end  of  the 
magnet  mannerically  different  from  that 
generated  at  the  other  end. 

Except  in  the  case  of  one  magnet  acting 
on  another  magnet,  the  effects  produced  by 
the  magnetism  from  one  end  of  a  magnet  are 
sensibly  the  same  as  those  produced  by  the 
magnetism  from  the  other  end — that  is, 
paramagnetic  substances  are  energized  at- 
tractively by  the  magnetism  from  either 
end,  and  diamagnetic  substances  are  ener- 
gized repulsively  by  the  magnetism  from 


Theory  of  Magnetism  97 

either  end,  which  shows  that  the  energy 
from  each  end  is  biqualital. 

In  the  case  of  two  magnets  acting  on  each 
other,  like  poles  repel,  and  unlike  poles 
attract,  and  it  is  in  this  respect  that  polarity 
manifests  itself. 

It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  man- 
nerism, of  the  centroatomic  energy  of  a  mag- 
net is  affected  by  the  polar  energy,  and 
owing  to  the  said  difference  in  the  polar 
densition  at  the  opposite  ends  of  the  magnet, 
it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  manner- 
ism of  the  centroatomic  energy  generated  at 
the  positive  end  of  a  magnet  is  different 
from  that  of  the  centroatomic  energy  gener- 
ated at  the  negative  end,  and  for  the  same 
reason  it  is  also  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  energizability  of  the  matter  at  the 
positive  end  of  a  magnet  is  not  the  same  as 
that  of  the  matter  at  the  negative  end. 

Under  the  theory,  therefore,  it  is  supposed 
that  the  energizability  of  the  matter  at  either 
end  of  a  magnet  is  such  that  it  is  energizable 
attractively,  in  the  kinetic  method,  by  the  en- 

7 


98  Theories  of  Energy 

ergy  from  the  unlike  pole  of  another  magnet, 
and  is  energizable  repulsively  by  the  energy 
from  the  like  pole  of  another  magnet. 

INDUCTION.  When  a  magnet  attracts  a 
piece  of  steel,  not  only  does  the  steel  move 
toward  the  magnet,  but  the  magnet,  if  free 
to  move,  moves  toward  the  steel  also. 

The  explanation  is  this:  The  steel,  being 
energized  in  the  kinetic  method  by  the 
energy  from  the  magnet,  is  energized  centro- 
atomically  in  both  qualities  of  energy  by  one 
of  the  qualities  of  the  energy  from  the  mag- 
net, the  other  quality  of  centroatomic  energy 
arising  spontaneously  as  a  consequence  of  the 
one,  which,  it  is  supposed,  always  occurs  in 
such  method  of  energizement.  The  centro- 
atomic energy  of  the  steel  is  imparted  to  the 
medium  and  transmitted  to  the  magnet, 
and,  being  magnetic  energy,  it  energizes  the 
magnet  in  the  kinetic  method,  attractively. 

This  is  reciprocal  induction,  and  it  is  by 
this  process  that  the  energetic  condition  of 
the  magnet  is  maintained,  being  the  process 
by  which  the  keeper,  the  piece  placed  on  a 


Theory  of  Magnetism  99 

magnet  when  not  in  use,  keeps  the  magnet 
from  deteriorating. 

LINES  OF  MAGNETIC  FORCE.  When  a 
magnet  is  held  underneath  a  piece  of  paper 
on  which  there  are  steel  filings,  the  filings 
arrange  themselves  in  lines  radiating  out- 
ward from  the  ends  of  the  magnet  and  curv- 
ing outward  between  the  two  ends.  The 
lines  thus  represented  by  the  filings  are  called 
lines  of  magnetic  force. 

Draw  a  line  two  inches  long  and  let  it  re- 
present a  slender  magnet,  and  with  compasses 
describe  a  series  of  concentric  circles  (forty- 
eight  in  number,  say)  around  each  end  as  a 
centre,  beginning  at  each  end  with  a  radius 
of  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch,  the  circles  of  each 
series  to  be  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  apart. 

The  circles  of  the  two  series  will  intersect 
at  points  opposite  the  sides  of  the  magnet 
and  also  beyond  the  ends  of  the  magnet. 

Let  the  circles  represent  positive  densits 
proceeding  away  from  the  ends  of  the  magnet. 
The  negative  densits  would  be  represented 
by  intermediate  circles. 


ioo  Theories  of  Energy 

Beyond  the  ends  of  the  magnet  the  densi- 
tional  movements  in  like  qualities  of  densits 
in  the  two  systems  have  the  same  general 
direction.  In  the  line  of  the  magnet  they 
have  the  same  direction,  but  at  points  away 
from  such  line  their  directions  are  somewhat 
diverse. 

At  points  of  densitic  intersection  where  the 
movements  are  in  diverse  directions  the 
matter  cannot  move  in  both  systems  simul- 
taneously in  such  diverse  directions.  It  will 
move  in  a  single  intermediate  direction,  de- 
pending on  the  relative  strengths  of  the  two 
systems  at  the  points  of  intersection,  and 
such  line  of  movement  may  be  called  the 
Line  of  the  energial  Resultant. 

One  end  being  attracted  and  the  other 
repelled,  each  steel  filing  turns  so  that  its 
long  dimension  lies  in  the  line  of  the  result- 
ant at  the  point  where  the  filing  is,  and, 
owing  to  the  greater  intensity  of  the  energy 
from  the  nearer  end  of  the  magnet,  these 
lines  are  about  radial  from  the  nearer  end. 

Densitic  intension  or  vitiation,  as  the  case 


Theory  of 

may  be,  occurs  at  the  points  of  densitic 
intersection,  and  lines  drawn  through  the 
points  of  densitic  intersection  from  the  ends 
of  the  magnet  will  represent  lines  of  inten- 
sion or  vitiation,  as  the  case  may  be,  taking 
into  account  the  qualities  and  the  cogressive- 
ness  or  countergressiveness  of  the  two  systems. 

The  steel  filings  arrange  themselves  in 
lines  agreeing  with  the  lines  of  densitic  in- 
tension. 

Opposite  the  sides  of  the  magnet  like  quali- 
ties of  the  two  systems  of  energy  act  more  or 
less  in  opposition,  acting  in  direct  opposition 
at  the  sides  of  the  magnet,  and  by  taking 
into  account  the  relative  strengths  of  the 
two  systems,  the  line  of  the  resultant  at  any 
point  of  intersection  may  be  determined. 

Opposite  the  middle  of  the  magnet,  in  the 
line  of  the  magnet's  equator,  the  two  systems 
are  of  equal  strengths,  and  the  lines  of  the 
resultants  are  parallel  with  the  magnet. 
Between  the  equatorial  line  and  either  end  of 
the  magnet  the  lines  of  the  resultants  are 
angling,  being  directed  more  and  more  toward 


io:>  Theories  of  Energy 

the  ends  of  the  magnet  as  the  ends  are 
approached. 

Such  being  the  case,  the  lines  of  the  result- 
ants at  the  various  points  of  densitic  inter- 
section opposite  the  sides  of  the  magnet  have 
directions  which  may  be  indicated  by  curved 
lines  drawn  from  end  to  end  of  the  magnet 
through  the  points  of  densitic  intersection, 
and  such  lines  agree  with  the  lines  of  force 
opposite  the  sides  of  a  magnet,  as  represented 
by  the  steel  filings. 

CHANGE  IN  LENGTH  OF  MAGNETIZED  BAR. 
When  a  bar  of  steel  is  magnetized  it  increases 
in  length  until  saturation  is  reached,  after 
which  it  decreases  in  length.  When  a  bar  of 
cobalt  is  magnetized  it  at  first  decreases  in 
length,  and  then  increases  in  length.  When 
a  bar  of  nickel  is  magnetized  it  decreases  in 
length  only. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
changes  in  length  are  produced  by  the  polar 
densition,  for,  such  densition  consisting  of 
many  systems  of  each  quality,  it  is  conceiv- 
able that  the  systems  of  opposite  qualities, 


Theory  of  Magnetism  103 

the  movements  of  matter  being  in  opposite 
directions,  might  be  so  related  to  each  other 
at  one  time  or  in  one  case  as  to  cause  exten- 
sion of  the  bar,  and  might  be  so  related  at 
another  time  or  in  another  case  as  to  cause 
contraction  of  the  bar. 

In  a  single  densitic  system  a  negative  move- 
ment is  away  from  the  preceding  positive 
movement  and  toward  the  following  posi- 
tive movement,  so  that  in  a  single  system 
the  movements  toward  one  another  are  equal 
to  the  movements  away  from  one  another, 
and  on  the  whole  there  is  neither  extension 
nor  contraction. 

The  energy  is  polymanneric,  and  there 
are  many  densitic  systems  of  different  inter- 
vals, and  owing  to  the  different  intervals  the 
relation  between  the  opposite  movements  of 
the  polar  systems  might  be  such  that  the 
movements  toward  one  another  would  pre- 
ponderate over  the  movements  away  from 
one  another,  which  would  cause  contraction 
of  the  bar,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rela- 
tion might  be  such  that  the  movements 


104  Theories  of  Energy 

away  from  one  another  would  preponderate 
over  those  toward  one  another,  which  would 
cause  extension  of  the  bar. 

INTERMEDIATE  POLES.  In  a  magnet  sev- 
eral feet  in  length  there  are  intermediate 
poles,  just  as  if  the  bar  were  divided  into 
several  pieces,  each  with  a  positive  and  a 
negative  pole. 

The  explanation  evidently  is  that  there  are 
places  of  general  densitic  interference  be- 
tween the  polar  systems  of  different  densitic 
intervals,  the  energy  being  polymanneric. 
There  is  undoubtedly  some  densitic  inter- 
ference all  along  a  magnet,  but  only  at 
certain  places  is  there  general  interference. 

Such  places  of  general  interference  are 
places  of  densitic  vitiation,  dead  places,  as 
it  were,  and  the  section  of  the  bar  between 
such  a  place  and  the  end  of  the  bar,  or  between 
two  such  places,  has  polarity  within  itself, 
because  at  one  end  thereof  there  is  greater  cum- 
ulation of  positive  densits  than  at  the  other, 
and  at  the  opposite  end  there  is  greater  cumu- 
lation of  negative  densits  than  at  the  other. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  THEORY  OF  ELECTRICITY 

HTEXT  books  on  electricity  begin  with 
A  the  statement  that  if  certain  substances, 
as  amber,  sealing  wax,  and  glass,  are  rubbed 
with  certain  other  substances,  as  flannel, 
silk,  and  fur,  they  attract  bits  of  paper  and 
pith  balls,  and  it  is  said  that  such  bodies, 
both  those  that  are  rubbed  and  those  with 
which  the  rubbing  is  done,  are  electrified, 
one  positively  and  the  other  negatively.  It 
is  said  that  vitreous  bodies  are  usually  electri- 
fied positively,  and  that  resinous  bodies  are 
usually  electrified  negatively,  depending 
in  either  case,  however,  on  the  substance 
with  which  the  rubbing  is  done,  as, 
when  glass  is  rubbed  with  silk  it  is  said  to 
be  positively  electrified,  and  when  it  is 
10$ 


106  Theories  of  Energy 

rubbed  with  fur  it  is  said  to  be  negatively 
electrified. 

Many  substances  develop  the  power  of 
attraction  through  friction,  some  more 
strongly  than  others,  and  many  substances, 
as  wood,  cork,  bone,  celluloid,  and  metal, 
do  not  develop  the  power,  and  the  attractive 
power  is  developed  more  strongly  by  rubbing 
with  some  substances  than  with  others,  as 
sealing  wax  probably  develops  the  power 
most  strongly  when  rubbed  with  flannel,  a 
stick  of  sealing  wax,  rubbed  with  flannel  for 
half  a  minute,  attracting  a  strip  of  paper 
hanging  from  the  edge  of  a  table  over  a 
distance  of  eight  inches. 

The  power  of  attraction  is  developed  in 
sealing  wax,  vulcanite,  and  glass,  as  well  as 
in  some  other  substances,  when  the  rubbing 
is  done  with  any  one  of  many  things:  wool, 
silk,  cotton,  fur,  paper,  chamois,  leather, 
rubber,  wood,  cork,  bone,  celluloid,  metal, 
vulcanite,  sealing  wax,  paraffine,  beeswax, 
a  clothes  brush,  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and 
other  things. 


Theory  of  Electricity  107 

All  substances  which  develop  the  power 
attract  paper,  and  so  paper  may  be  used  for 
testing,  a  strip  of  newspaper  eight  inches 
long  and  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  wide,  hang- 
ing from  the  edge  of  a  table,  being  the  most 
convenient. 

Thread  an  ordinary  steel  sewing  needle 
and  let  it  hang  from  the  edge  of  the  table  by 
the  thread.  With  a  drop  of  sealing  wax 
fasten  a  piece  of  thread  to  the  edge  of  a 
copper  cent,  and  in  the  same  way  fasten 
other  threads  to  a  nickel,  a  silver  dime,  a 
five-dollar  gold  piece,  and  to  small  disks 
of  lead,  zinc,  and  aluminum,  and  to  a  cork, 
and  hang  these  from  the  edge  of  the  table. 
Loop  doubled  pieces  of  thread  around  the 
middles  of  an  oblong  rubber  eraser,  a  stick 
of  sealing  wax,  a  wooden  rod  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  a  lead  pencil,  a  glass  rod  of  the  same 
size,  a  paraffine  candle,  and  a  draftsman's 
celluloid  triangle,  and  hang  these  in  a  bal- 
anced condition  from  the  edge  of  the  table. 

It  will  be  found  that  a  stick  of  commercial 
sealing  wax  will  attract  all  these  things,  caus- 


io8  Theories  of  Energy 

ing  them  to  turn,  when  rubbed  on  any  of  the 
things  mentioned,  but  when  rubbed  on  some 
things,  as  castile  soap,  it  will  not  attract 
any  of  them,  paraffine  being  the  only  sub- 
stance, as  far  as  determined,  which  develops 
the  power  of  attraction  when  rubbed  on  soap. 

A  glass  sphere  and  a  vulcanite  comb  at- 
tract these  things  also  when  rubbed  on  any 
of  the  things  mentioned. 

Paraffine  develops  the  power  of  attraction 
when  rubbed  on  any  of  many  things,  but 
when  rubbed  on  paraffine,  both  pieces  being 
first  dipped  in  water,  or  when  rubbed  on 
beeswax,  it  does  not. 

Beeswax  develops  the  power  of  attrac- 
tion when  rubbed  on  any  of  many  things. 
When  paraffine  and  beeswax  are  rubbed  to- 
gether neither  develops  the  power  appreci- 
ably. Paraffine  develops  the  power  when 
rubbed  on  soap  and  also  when  rubbed  on 
wood,  but  beeswax  does  not  develop  it  when 
rubbed  on  either. 

When  some  substances  are  rubbed  to- 
gether only  one  of  them  develops  the  power 


Theory  of  Electricity  109 

of  attraction,  as  paraffine  on  soap,  and  when 
metal,  wood,  cork,  celluloid,  or  bone  is  one  of 
the  substances  it  does  not  develop  the  power. 

In  some  cases  when  two  bodies  of  the  same 
substance  are  rubbed  together  both  develop 
the  power  of  attraction,  as  vulcanite  on 
vulcanite  and  sealing  wax  on  sealing  wax, 
but  in  other  cases  neither  of  the  bodies 
develops  the  power,  as  paraffine  on  paraffine, 
beeswax  on  beeswax,  and  glass  on  glass. 

A  rubbed  body  will  not  attract  an  object 
if  a  sheet  of  any  substance  is  interposed  in 
the  air  between  them,  so  that  in  making  a 
test  on  a  compass  needle  the  glass  must  be 
removed  from  the  case. 

Sealing  wax  and  the  other  substances 
which  develop  the  power  of  attraction  attract 
either  end  of  the  magnetic  needle. 

When  a  body  in  which  the  power  of  at- 
traction has  been  developed  by  rubbing  is 
dipped  in  water  or  other  liquid  it  loses  the 
power,  being  de-energized,  and  in  making  the 
tests,  before  rubbing  an  object  it  should  be 
dipped  in  water. 


no  Theories  of   Energy 

Probably  all  substances  which  develop 
the  power  of  attraction  do  so  for  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  rubbed  area.  The  perme- 
ability of  some  substances  is  great  and  rapid, 
while  that  of  others  is  limited  and  slow. 
In  some  substances,  as  glass,  it  is  greater 
when  rubbed  with  some  things  than  when 
rubbed  with  other  things. 

A  stick  of  sealing  wax  nine  inches  long, 
held  by  one  end  and  rubbed  with  flannel  at 
the  other  end,  develops  the  power  of  attrac- 
tion up  to  the  fingers,  the  energy  of  the  fin- 
gers preventing  the  portion  with  which  they 
are  in  contact  from  developing  the  energy, 
and  if  the  stick  of  wax  be  then  held  by  the 
other  end,  the  power  will  be  developed  in 
the  portion  by  which  it  was  held,  without 
additional  rubbing. 

If  a  vulcanite  comb  an  inch  and  three 
quarters  wide  and  eight  inches  long,  de-ener- 
gized with  water  before  being  rubbed,  be 
rubbed  on  flannel  (wrapped  around  a  ruler) 
on  the  back  at  one  end,  the  end  portion  an 
inch  in  length  being  rubbed,  that  portion  of 


Theory  of  Electricity  in 

the  comb,  the  teeth  included,  will  develop 
the  power  of  attraction  with  little  rubbing, 
but  lengthwise  beyond  that  portion  the  power 
will  be  developed  for  any  considerable,  dis- 
tance only  by  prolonged  rubbing,  the  power 
being  eventually  developed  almost  through- 
out the  comb.  If  the  attractive  power  is 
then  allowed  to  subside  of  its  own  accord, 
not  dipping  the  comb  in  water,  upon  the 
same  end  portion  being  again  rubbed,  the 
power  will  be  immediately  developed  along 
the  comb  the  same  as  when  last  rubbed,  the 
vulcanite  being  in  a  state  of  impressure. 

A  solid  glass  sphere  two  inches  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  held  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger,  and  rubbed  at  one  place  on  fur 
lying  flat  on  the  table,  develops  the  power  of 
attraction  over  the  whole  exposed  surface, 
and  a  chemist's  glass  flask  with  a  spherical 
body  of  the  same  diameter  does  also,  but 
when  the  glass  sphere  or  flask  is  rubbed  on 
flannel  it  develops  the  power  over  a  limited 
area  only. 

After  being  rubbed,   different  substances 


H2  Theories  of  Energy 

retain  the  power  of  attraction  for  different 
lengths  of  time.  Paraffine  will  attract  the 
strip  of  paper  after  the  lapse  of  many  hours, 
and  sealing  wax  retains  the  power  of  attrac- 
tion for  several  hours,  but  vulcanite  does  not 
retain  it  so  long. 

A  solid  glass  sphere  two  inches  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  rubbed  well  on  fur,  retains  the 
power  of  attraction  for  over  ten  minutes, 
while  a  chemist's  glass  flask  of  the  same 
diameter  retains  the  power  for  not  over  two 
minutes.  This  shows  that  the  solid  glass 
sphere  is  energetic  throughout. 

The  energetic  condition  of  a  rubbed  body 
is  not  merely  superficial,  but  the  energy  per- 
meates, or  is  developed  in  the  interior  of, 
the  body  of  matter  which  is  rubbed,  as  shown 
by  the  following  experiment:  Cut  a  dozen 
bits  of  newspaper  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch 
square  and  put  them  in  a  chemist's  glass 
flask  with  a  spherical  body  two  inches  and 
a  half  in  diameter.  If  the  flask  and  paper 
are  perfectly  dry,  when  the  flask  is  revolved 
the  bits  of  paper  fall  to  the  bottom,  and 


Theory  of  Electricity  113 

when  the  flask  is  shaken  back  and  forth,  as 
if  being  rubbed  on  something,  the  bits  of 
paper  fly  back  and  forth. 

Rub  one  side  of  the  flask  briskly  back  and 
forth  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  the  bits 
of  paper  will  be  seen  flying  back  and  forth. 
After  rubbing  for  a  few  seconds  stop  for  a 
moment,  giving  the  bits  of  paper  an  oppor- 
tunity to  come  into  contact  with  the  rubbed 
portion,  after  which  continue  the  rubbing, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bits  of  paper  no 
longer  fly  back  and  forth.  After  rubbing 
for  a  few  seconds  longer  turn  the  flask  over, 
bringing  the  rubbed  portion  uppermost,  and 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  bits  of  paper  adhere 
to  the  glass  for  some  time. 

If  the  flask  be  rubbed  at  one  point  on  a 
flat  piece  of  celluloid,  so  that  the  rubbing  is 
limited  to  a  small  area,  when  the  flask  is 
turned  over  the  bits  of  paper  will  adhere  to 
the  glass  over  a  small  area  only,  which  shows 
that  the  charge  on  the  inside  of  the  flask 
does  not  get  there  along  the  surface,  be- 
cause if  it  did  the  bits  of  paper  should 


H4  Theories  of  Energy 

adhere  to  all  parts  of  the  inside  surface 
equally  well. 

The  different  effects  of  rubbing  with  differ- 
ent substances  may  be  seen  by  rubbing  the 
flask  on  fur  and  paraffine.  When  rubbed  on 
fur  the  bits  of  paper  adhere  strongly  to  any 
part  of  the  flask.  When  rubbed  on  paraffine 
they  adhere  hardly  at  all. 

That  the  energy  is  internal  in  the  matter 
is  also  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  energetic 
body  may,  through  reciprocal  induction,  be 
actuated  to  motion  by  the  energy,  which 
would  be  impossible  were  the  energy  merely 
superficial.  This  is  shown  by  the  following 
experiment,  which  at  the  same  time  illus- 
trates the  principle  of  reciprocal  induction 
clearly: 

Rub  a  paraffine  candle  with  the  hand 
until  it  develops  the  power  of  attraction 
strongly;  loop  a  doubled  thread  around  the 
middle,  and  suspend  it  in  a  balanced  condi- 
tion from  the  table. 

If  any  object  be  held  beside  one  end  of 
the  candle  that  end  will  move  toward  it. 


Theory  of  Electricity  115 

Hold  a  strip  of  paper,  six  inches  long  and  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  wide,  by  one  end,  and 
after  the  candle  has  come  to  rest  bring  the 
free  lower  end  of  the  paper  beside  the  end 
of  the  candle,  half  an  inch  from  it  and  edge- 
ways to  it,  so  it  will  not  come  into  contact 
with  the  candle.  The  end  of  the  candle  will 
move  toward  the  paper. 

If  the  candle  be  de-energized  with  water 
of  course  it  will  not  be  actuated  to  motion 
in  this  manner. 

The  same  experiment  may  be  performed 
with  a  magnet,  using  a  steel  wire  instead  of 
the  strip  of  paper,  which  shows  the  similarity 
of  action  between  magnetism  and  other 
attractive  energy. 

The  explanation  is  that  the  attractive 
energy  of  the  paraffine,  being  transmitted 
through  the  air,  energizes  the  paper  kineti- 
cally,  the  centroatomic  energy  being  biquali- 
tal,  and  this  energy,  being  transmitted  back 
to  the  candle,  energizes  the  candle  kinetically. 

Some  substances  become  charged  through 
contact  with  a  body  in  which  the  power  of 


n6  Theories  of  Energy 

attraction  is  developed,  and  then  have  the 
power  themselves.  If  the  strip  of  paper  be 
hung  from  the  edge  of  an  object  about  two 
inches  above  the  table,  so  that  the  strip  is 
about  half  an  inch  out  from  the  edge  of  the 
table-top,  after  the  lower  portion  of  the 
paper  has  been  in  contact  with  a  strongly 
energized  piece  of  sealing  wax,  the  wax  being 
jerked  away  after  contact  with  the  paper, 
the  part  of  the  paper  opposite  the  table- 
top  will  fly  back  into  contact  with  the 
table-top  and  will  remain  in  contact  with  it 
for  some  time,  showing  that  the  paper  has 
developed  the  power  of  attraction  through- 
out its  length,  and  that  it  retains  the  power 
for  some  time. 

When  rubbed  with  certain  different  sub- 
stances, some  bodies  repel  each  other,  as 
shown  by  the  following  experiment:  Double 
a  thread  and  loop  it  around  the  middle  of  a 
stick  of  sealing  wax  which  has  not  been 
rubbed  before,  and  hang  it  in  a  balanced 
condition  from  the  table;  rub  both  ends  of 
the  stick  of  wax  with  a  clothes  brush  or 


Theory  of  Electricity  117 

fur,  and  bring  it  to  a  state  of  rest.  Rub 
another  unused  stick  of  sealing  wax  briskly 
with  a  silk  cloth,  and  upon  holding  this  stick 
beside  either  end  of  the  suspended  stick, 
that  end  will  be  repelled. 

If  only  one  end  of  the  suspended  stick  is 
rubbed  with  the  brush  the  other  end  will  be 
attracted,  because  the  wax  will  be  weakly 
energized  at  that  end. 

If  sticks  of  wax  which  have  been  much 
used  in  the  rubbing  experiments  are  used, 
the  effects  of  impressure  may  sometimes  be 
seen,  interfering  with  the  experiment. 

This  experiment  shows  that  the  energitia 
of  the  wax  is  affected  by  the  rubbing,  and 
that  when  rubbed  with  these  different  sub- 
stances the  energizativity  and  energizability 
are  such  that  repulsion  occurs. 

The  energy  developed  by  rubbing  a  body 
which  develops  the  power  of  attraction  is  con- 
ductible  along  electric  conductors,  as  shown  in 
the  frictional  electric  machine,  in  which  the 
energy  collected  by  the  combs  from  the 
revolving  disk  is  transmitted  along  wires. 


n8  Theories  of   Energy 

The  following  experiments  are  interesting 
in  that  they  throw  a  great  deal  of  light  on 
polarity  and  on  the  electric  circuit: 

Heat  one  end  of  a  copper  wire  two  feet 
long  and  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
and  stick  it  in  the  end  of  a  stick  of  sealing 
wax  nine  inches  long,  holding  it  in  place 
until  the  wax  hardens  around  it.  Form  the 
wire  into  a  coil  so  it  will  not  droop  and  shake, 
as  it  must  not  be  touched  with  anything 
when  held  to  the  strip  of  paper. 

Holding  the  wax  by  the  opposite  end,  rub 
it  briskly  for  half  a  minute  with  flannel,  and, 
holding  it  by  the  same  end,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  wire  attracts  the  strip  of  paper  quite 
strongly. 

Take  hold  at  the  middle  of  the  stick, 
encircling  it  tightly  with  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger, and  it  will  be  found  that  the  attraction 
of  the  wire  for  the  paper  is  weaker  than 
before.  Hold  the  wax  by  the  end  again, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  the  wire  attracts 
the  paper  strongly  again. 

This  shows  that  energy  passes  lengthwise 


Theory  of  Electricity  119 

through  the  stick  of  wax,  and  that  it  strength- 
ens the  energy  of  the  matter  at  the  end  in 
which  the  wire  is  fixed.  When  the  stick  of 
wax  is  held  by  the  middle  the  energy  of  the 
fingers  stops  the  passage  of  the  polar  energy, 
for,  as  will  be  seen  from  experiments  here- 
after described,  a  rubbed  body  has  polarity. 

The  same  experiment  may  be  performed 
with  a  paraffine  candle,  a  piece  of  copper 
wire  a  foot  long  being  stuck  in  the  end  of  the 
candle  and  coiled,  the  effect  on  the  paper 
being  more  pronounced  with  the  coil. 

The  candle  having  been  used  in  the  rub- 
bing experiments  and  having  the  coiled  wire 
in  the  end,  cut  off  the  point  at  the  other  end, 
and  by  heating  this  end  with  a  warm  iron 
and  also  the  end  of  another  candle,  the  two 
candles  may  be  joined  together,  end  to  end. 

Hold  the  joined  candles  by  the  pointed  end 
of  the  attached  candle  and  rub  them  through- 
out their  lengths,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
the  wire  does  not  affect  the  strip  of  paper. 

Take  hold  of  the  candles  at  the  point  where 
joined  together,  encircling  them  with  the 


120  Theories  of  Energy 

thumb  and  forefinger,  and  the  wire  will  then 
attract  the  strip  of  paper. 

If  the  point  be  cut  off  of  the  attached  candle 
and  the  coiled  wire  be  stuck  in  that  end,  the 
effects  will  be  reversed. 

Here  again  we  see  that  energy  must  pass 
lengthwise  of  the  candles,  and  that  it  affects 
the  energy  of  the  matter  at  the  ends. 

Heat  the  end  of  a  copper  wire  two  feet  long 
and  stick  it  in  the  end  of  a  nine-inch  stick 
of  sealing  wax,  and,  heating  the  other  end 
of  the  wire,  stick  it  in  the  side  of  the  wax 
half  an  inch  from  the  end  in  which  the  wire 
is  fixed.  Rub  the  wax  with  flannel,  and  the 
wire  will  attract  the  strip  of  paper. 

Now  shift  the  end  of  the  wire  in  the  side 
of  the  wax  to  a  point  two  inches  from  the 
other  end.  Hold  the  wax  by  the  two-inch 
end  portion,  rub  with  flannel,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  the  portion  of  the  wire  near  the 
end  of  the  wax  repels  the  paper,  and  that  the 
portion  near  the  side  of  the  wax  attracts  it, 
while  the  middle  portion  has  no  effect  on  it. 

The  opposite  qualities  of  energy  are  unequal 


Theory  of  Electricity  121 

near  the  ends  of  the  wire,  one  quality  being 
stronger  at  one  end,  and  the  other  being 
stronger  at  the  other  end,  being  equal  at  the 
middle  of  the  wire,  and  the  energizativity  of 
the  resulting  centroatomic  energy  of  the  wire 
is  such  that  the  paper  is  affected  as  stated. 

Take  hold  of  the  stick  of  wax  at  the  middle, 
encircling  it  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  the  portion  of  the 
wire  which  repelled  the  paper  now  attracts 
it,  as  well  as  the  other  portion. 

If  the  end  of  the  wire  be  pulled  out  of  the 
side  of  the  wax  and  be  placed  in  contact  with 
the  table  or  be  held  in  the  hand,  the  wire  will 
not  attract  the  paper,  but  the  portion  of  the 
wire  near  the  wax  will  repel  it. 

These  experiments  clearly  show  that  a 
body  in  which  the  power  of  attraction  is 
developed  by  rubbing  has  polarity,  and  this 
will  be  shown  more  conclusively  by  an  experi- 
ment which  will  be  described  shortly  in 
connection  with  conduction. 

The  experiments  also  show  that  in  the 
electric  circuit  the  two  qualities  of  energy  act 


122  Theories  of  Energy 

in  opposite  directions,  which  is  the  essential 
feature  of  the  circuit. 

The  energy  developed  by  rubbing  is  electric 
energy,  for  when  it  is  collected  by  the  combs 
in  the  frictional  electric  machine  it  produces 
electrical  effects,  and  one  of  the  purposes  of 
these  experiments  is  to  show  that  electric 
energy  is  merely  the  augmented,  mannerically 
modified  and  polymannerized  energy  of 
atomic  matter,  not  essentially  different  from 
magnetism  or  other  energy;  and  to  show  that 
it  acts  in  electrified  bodies  in  which  it  is 
generated  in  a  certain  method,  the  polar 
method,  and  acts  in  conductors  and  trans- 
mitting media  in  a  certain  method,  the 
electric  method. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
rubbed  body  in  which  the  power  of  attraction 
is  developed  is  energized  in  the  polar  method, 
some  of  the  matter  being  energized  centroato- 
mically,  and  systems  of  polar  energy  being 
set  up  in  the  other  kind  of  matter,  acting 
lengthwise  of  the  body. 

The  energitia  of  the  matter  is  affected  by 


Theory  of  Electricity  123 

the  energy  of  the  matter  with  which  the 
rubbing  is  done,  as  shown  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  attractive  power  in  different 
strengths  when  the  rubbing  is  done  with 
different  substances,  and  by  its  nondevelop- 
ment  when  the  rubbing  is  done  with  some 
substances.  The  energy  of  the  matter  is 
augmented  by  the  friction,  and  so  is  the 
energy  of  the  matter  with  which  the  rubbing 
is  done;  the  polymannerism  of  the  energy 
is  increased  by  the  rubbing,  and  the  manner- 
ism of  the  energy  is  modified  by  the  aug- 
mented energy  of  the  matter  with  which  the 
rubbing  is  done. 

The  centroatomic  energizement  effected 
by  the  rubbing  is  probably,  to  some  degree 
at  least,  comprehensive,  and  in  that  way  the 
centroatomic  energy  is  probably  extended 
through  the  body  for  some  distance,  and  it 
is  supposed  to  be  extended  by  the  polar 
energy  also. 

The  centroatomic  energy  is  the  energy 
which  effects  the  attraction  and  repulsion 
of  bodies,  and  the  transatomic  energy  in  the 


124  Theories  of  Energy 

medium  or  conductor  is  the  energy  which 
effects  the  transmission,  being  the  current 
energy,  the  energy  of  the  circuit. 

As  has  already  been  said,  electricity  is 
supposed  to  be  energy,  mannerically  the  same 
as  magnetism,  chemicity,  heat  and  light, 
but  certain  manners  of  energy  probably 
produce  greater  electrical  effects  than  others 

(28). 

Electricity  is  generated  in  the  dynamo  in 
the  presence  of  electro-magnets;  it  is  gene- 
rated in  batteries  through  chemical  action; 
it  is  generated  when  different  metals  are 
placed  in  contact  and  heated;  it  is  generated 
in  the  frictional  electric  machine,  and  it  is 
generated  in  luminous  bodies.  Electric  en- 
ergy causes  chemical  action,  causes  magnetic 
action,  causes  attraction  and  repulsion,  as 
we  have  seen  in  the  rubbing  experiments, 
and  causes  heat  and  light.  Is  it  not  reason- 
able, then,  to  suppose  that  electric  energy 
is  mannerically  the  same  as  such  energy? 

Electricity  is  supposed  to  be  densitic  in 
form  of  action  and  biqualital  (29). 


Theory  of  Electricity  125 

Electric  "waves"  are  commonly  supposed 
to  have  long  intervals,  longer  than  those  of 
heat,  intervals  of  many  feet,  even,  but  it  is 
inconceivable  that  "waves"  of  such  inter- 
vals can  incite  small  bodies  and  particles  of 
matter,  such  as  atmospheric  particles,  to 
centroatomic  energy,  as  is  supposed  under 
the  theory  here  advanced,  it  being  supposed 
that  the  electricity  of  wireless  telegraphy  is 
diffracted  around  the  earth  by  this  method 
of  energizement,  the  same  as  light  and  heat 
are  diffracted. 

In  Hertz's  experiments  the  discharges  were 
oscillatory,  and  oscillatory  discharges  are 
used  in  wireless  telegraphy.  Under  the 
electromagnetic  theory  it  is  supposed  that 
each  discharge  produces  a  disturbance  in  the 
medium  which  causes  a  "wave,"  the  fre- 
quency of  the  "waves"  depending  on  the 
frequency  of  the  discharges. 

Under  the  theory  here  advanced  it  is 
supposed  that  the  oscillatory  discharges 
produce  segregated  groups  of  densits,  which 
may  be  called  Densitries,  each  densitry 


126  Theories  of  Energy 

being  composed  of  many  densits,  and,  the 
energy  being  polymanneric,  consisting  of 
many  systems,  each  of  many  densits,  which 
are  hemispherical  in  form,  and  which  are 
imparted  to  the  air  by  the  charged  bodies, 
the  conductors  and  spark  terminals. 

These  densitries  follow  each  other  in  rapid 
succession,  each  discharge  producing  one, 
and  concordance  and  interference  may  occur 
between  the  densits  of  countergressive  den- 
sitries, as  determined  by  Hertz,  and  since 
the  concordance  and  interference  between 
densits  of  different  intervals  would  be  at 
different  points,  it  is  possible,  under  this 
theory,  to  account  for  the  fact  that  resonators 
of  different  sizes  have  shown  the  points  of 
intension  and  vitiation  to  be  differently 
located. 

Electric  oscillations  occur  in  a  body,  such 
as  an  electric  condenser,  which  is  energetic 
in  the  polar  method  when  interruption  occurs 
in  the  charging  current  or  induction,  on 
account  of  which  there  becomes  evident  a 
"surging"  to  and  fro  of  the  transatomic 


Theory  of  Electricity  127 

systems,  the  systems  of  opposite  qualities 
having  opposite  directions. 

The  oscillations  are,  under  the  theory, 
supposed  to  be  due  to  internal  reflections 
of  the  transatomic  systems,  the  first  of  any 
set  being  the  strongest,  the  subsequent 
oscillations  becoming  weaker  and  weaker, 
and  finally  dying  out,  just  as  the  internal 
reflections  of  light  become  weaker  and  weaker 
and  die  out.  These  oscillations  probably 
occur  in  continuously  charged  bodies,  also, 
but  they  are  evident  only  during  interrup- 
tions. 

As  Hertz  showed,  electricity  is  reflectible, 
the  same  as  light,  and  the  explanation  of 
reflection  given  in  the  next  chapter  applies 
to  electricity  also. 

Bodies  of  some  substances  obstruct  electri- 
city in  its  transmission  through  a  medium 
(30).  Those  substances  which  do  not  trans- 
mit the  energy  transatomically  obstruct  it. 
If  energized  centroatomically  and  compre- 
hensively the  energy  is  transmitted,  inter- 
atomically,  but  it  is  much  weakened. 


128  Theories  of  Energy 

In  case  of  obstruction,  however,  the  energy 
spreads  out  behind  the  obstructing  body, 
being  diffracted,  just  as  light  is,  the  diffrac- 
tion of  light  being  effected  through  the 
misceous  method  of  energizement. 

Wireless  telegraphic  messages  have  been 
transmitted  through  the  air  over  distances 
equal  to  about  a  third  of  the  earth's  circum- 
ference, which  shows  that  the  transmitted 
energy  spreads  out  laterally,  or  is  diffracted 
around  the  earth  (31). 

When  standing  before  a  hot  fire  if  the 
hand  is  held  in  front  of  the  face  it  keeps  the 
intense  heat  from  the  face,  but  considerable 
heat  gets  around  behind  the  hand.  We  all 
understand  how  this  is  accomplished:  the 
air  behind  the  hand  is  heated,  as  we  say,which 
means  that  it  is  centroatomically  energized 
by  the  heat. 

There  is  daylight  for  several  hours  after 
sunset,  the  daylight  being  due  to  the  centro- 
atomic  energizement  of  the  air  engaged  by 
the  sunlight,  the  air  being  energized  com- 
prehensively for  a  long  distance,  and  the 


Theory  of  Electricity  129 

particles  of  atmospheric  dust  engaged  by  the 
sunlight  are  energized  centroatomically  also, 
and  that  energy  is  transmitted  transatomi- 
cally  through  the  air. 

Transatomic  energy  does  not  spread  out 
laterally  to  any  appreciable  extent,  and  the 
diffraction  of  electricity  is  supposed  to  be 
effected  by  the  electric  method  of  energize- 
ment,  the  particles  of  atmospheric  dust  with 
which  the  air  is  laden  making  it  energizable 
in  the  electric  method,  and  variations  in  the 
dust  condition  of  the  air  may  account  for 
the  differences  in  transmissibility  of  wireless 
messages  at  different  times. 

Not  only  does  the  diffraction  of  electricity 
depend  on  the  presence  of  centroatomically 
energizable  particles  in  the  medium,  but  its 
very  transmission  does,  as  shown  by  the 
fact  that  gases  lose  their  electric  conductivity 
upon  being  filtered,  and  in  the  vacuum  dis- 
charge tube,  which  contains  ether  and  some 
atoms,  when  the  atoms  have  become  diffused 
the  discharge  ceases,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
inject  hydrogen  atoms  to  revive  the  discharge. 


130  Theories  of  Energy 

ELECTRIC  CONDUCTION.  It  is  the  common 
opinion  of  physicists  that  the  medium  or 
dielectric  around  a  conductor  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  conduction  of  electricity 
(32),  which  is  true,  but  the  conductor  is  the 
essential  element,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that 
if  the  wire  be  severed  and  a  thin  sheet  of 
non-conductive  material,  such  as  a  disk  of 
paper,  be  inserted  between  the  ends,  the 
conduction  is  interrupted,  even  though  the 
insulation  continue  unbroken  by  the  point 
of  severance,  which  clearly  shows  that  the 
energial  action  proceeds  through  the  wire. 
This  is  also  shown  by  the  fact  that  an 
excessive  amount  of  impurities  in  copper 
wire  makes  it  a  poorer  conductor.  All 
copper  contains  some  impurities,  and  a  small 
amount  (one  or  two  per  cent.,  say)  is  probably 
necessary. 

When  two  different  metals,  such  as  copper 
and  zinc  or  silver  and  iron,  are  connected 
together  with  a  copper  wire  and  suspended 
in  a  suitable  liquid,  forming  a  voltaic  or  wet 
battery,  an  electric  current  passes  along  the 


Theory  of  Electricity  131 

wire  and  through  the  liquid  between  the 
metals,  and  particles  of  one  of  the  metals 
may  be  carried  over  and  deposited  on  the 
other,  as  in  the  electro-plating  process,  which 
shows  that  there  is  transatomic  energy  acting 
around  the  circuit,  the  metallic  particles  be- 
ing energized  in  the  kinetic  method  thereby, 
and  from  which  we  see  that  one  quality  of 
the  transatomic  energy  proceeds  in  one  direc- 
tion in  the  circuit,  and  that  the  other  quality 
proceeds  in  the  opposite  direction. 

This  shows  that  one  of  the  metals  is  acting 
positively  in  one  direction,  toward  the  liquid, 
and  that  the  other  is  acting  positively  in 
the  same  direction  in  the  circuit,  away  from 
the  liquid,  each  acting  negatively  in  the 
opposite  direction,  so  that  the  like  qualities 
in  both  are  acting  in  the  same  direction  in 
the  circuit. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
polar  method  of  energy  is  necessary  in  the 
generating  body  in  order  to  produce  the  cur- 
rent of  the  circuit.  That  the  rubbed  stick 
of  sealing  wax,  the  energy  of  which  produces 


132  Theories  of   Energy 

the  electric  current,  as  we  have  seen  from  the 
experiments,  has  polarity,  is  shown  by  the 
following  experiment : 

Let  the  experimenter  sit  with  the  strip  of 
paper  (or,  better,  a  piece  of  thread  or  twine) 
hanging  from  the  table  in  front  of  him;  rub 
a  nine-inch  stick  of  sealing  wax  well  with 
flannel,  rubbing  the  stick  throughout  its 
length,  and,  holding  the  stick  by  both  ends 
and  crosswise  of  the  thread,  bring  the  middle 
of  the  stick  squarely  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  thread. 

The  thread  will  be  attracted  to  the  middle, 
and  it  will  then  fly  toward  one  end  of  the  stick. 
If  the  stick  be  then  jerked  away,  and  the 
middle  be  immediately  brought  to  the  thread 
again,  the  thread  will  not  come  into  contact 
with  the  middle,  but  it  will  move  toward 
the  opposite  end  of  the  stick  of  wax  and  come 
into  contact  with  that  part. 

This  clearly  shows  that  one  quality  of 
energy  acts  toward  one  end  of  the  stick  of 
wax,  and  that  the  other  quality  acts  toward 
the  other  end,  because  the  thread  becomes 


Theory  of  Electricity  133 

charged  when  in  contact  with  one  end  and  it 
retains  the  charge  for  a  space,  and,  unlike 
qualities  attracting,  since  it  is  then  attracted 
by  the  other  end  of  the  wax,  that  end  must 
be  oppositely  charged. 

The  fact  that  like  poles  of  two  sticks  of 
sealing  wax  do  not  repel  does  not  militate 
against  the  idea  that  it  has  polarity,  because 
the  attraction  or  repulsion  depends  on  the 
energitia  of  the  matter.  If  the  polar  energy 
does  not  so  modify  the  energitia  of  the  matter 
that  like  poles  repel,  then  they  attract. 

As  to  the  part  played  by  the  surrounding 
medium  in  the  conduction  of  electricity: 
Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the  air 
around  the  wire  is  energized  transatomically 
by  the  centroatomic  energy  of  the  particles 
in  the  wire,  such  energy  being  transmitted 
by  the  insulating  matter  around  the  wire,  if 
any,  so  that  the  wire  is  surrounded  by 
systems  of  transatomic  energy  in  the  air, 
which  energy  is  spherical  in  densitic  form, 
with  the  point  of  generation  of  any  system 
as  the  centre  of  that  system. 


134  Theories  of  Energy 

This  transatomic  energy  energizes  the 
particles  in  the  air  centroatomically,  which 
centroatomic  energy  is  spherical  in  densitic 
form  and  is  transmitted  through  the  air  in 
all  directions  from  the  particles  in  which  it 
is  generated,  a  part  of  each  system  proceed- 
ing toward  the  wire,  and  parts  of  each  system 
proceeding  forward  and  backward  along  the 
wire,  energizing  other  particles  centroatomi- 
cally, and  the  energy  of  such  particles  pro- 
ceeds in  the  same  way,  and  so  on,  and  those 
parts  of  the  systems  of  atmospheric  energy 
which  engage  the  wire  are  transmitted  through 
it,  engaging  all  the  centroatomically  energiz- 
able  particles  in  the  wire  and  energizing 
them,  and  the  energy  of  such  particles  builds 
up  and  enhances  the  energy  of  the  circuit. 

This  is  self -induction,  accomplished  through 
reciprocal  energizement,  and  it  occurs  in  all 
electrically  charged  bodies,  it  being  by  this 
process  that  charges  are  maintained  or  pro- 
longed after  electrification  has  ceased. 

By  induction,  which  is  accomplished  by 
the  surrounding  energy  in  the  air,  an  electri- 


Theory  of  Electricity  135 

cally  charged  body  electrifies  a  nearby  body, 
in  which  self-induction  then  takes  place,  it 
becoming  surrounded  by  densition  in  the  air 
also,  and  this  second  body,  through  such 
surrounding  densition,  in  turn  induces  energy 
in  the  first  body.  This  action  and  reaction 
between  bodies  is  mutual  or  reciprocal 
induction. 

CONDUCTORS  AND  NON-CONDUCTORS.  Sub- 
stances which  are  energizable  in  the  electric 
method  may  be  classed  as  conductors  of 
electricity,  and  the  greater  the  number  of 
manners  of  energy  that  the  matter  acts  to 
in  the  electric  method,  the  greater  its  con- 
ductivity. 

Substances  which  are  not  energizable  in 
the  electric  method  may  be  classed  as  non- 
conductors. 

Substances  which  are  energizable  trans- 
missively  or  transatomically  transmit  the 
energy,  but,  not  being  continually  built  up, 
it  becomes  so  weak  that  it  soon  loses  its 
effectiveness. 

Substances  which  are  energizable  centro- 


136  Theories  of  Energy 

atomically  transform  the  energy  into  heat, 
light,  or  chemicity,  which  process  is  commonly 
referred  to  as  resistance,  and  the  fact  that 
some  heat  is  developed  even  in  the  best 
conductors  shows  that  some  of  the  matter 
is  centroatomically  energetic. 

Iron  is  a  poorer  conductor  than  copper, 
because  more  heat  is  developed  in  it,  more  of 
the  electrical  manners  being  transformed 
into  heat,  for  which  reason  iron  wire  may  be 
used  for  the  coil  in  electric  heaters. 

THE  ELECTRIC  SPARK.  The  electric  spark 
only  occurs  between  two  electrified  bodies, 
and  the  fact  that  two  bodies  are  necessary 
shows  that  the  spark  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  two  systems  of  energy,  the 
energy  of  each  body  being  transmitted 
through  the  intervening  air,  the  two  sys- 
tems of  energy  being  countergressive,  and 
densitic  intersection  occurring  between 
them,  giving  rise  to  densitic  intension  and 
vitiation. 

The  electric  spark  suggests  the  idea  that 
the  energy  flows  from  one  body  to  the  other 


Theory  of  Electricity  137 

in  the  form  of  a  narrow  stream,  but  the  fact  is 
that  the  energy  is  being  transmitted  in  all 
directions  from  each  body. 

The  line  of  the  spark  is  the  line  of  greatest 
intensity  in  the  electric  field,  and  the  spark 
is  evidently  caused  by  the  atmospheric  parti- 
cles at  the  points  of  densitic  concordance 
of  the  two  countergressive  systems  of  energy 
becoming  luminous  on  account  of  the  densitic 
intension  resulting  from  such  concordance, 
the  particles  being  energized  centroatomically 
by  the  intensified  energy. 

Lightning  is  often  in  the  form  of  an  oscil- 
latory discharge,  which  is  evidently  due  to 
interruptions  in  the  reciprocal  induction 
between  the  earth  and  cloud,  the  interrup- 
tions being  caused  by  the  atmospheric  parti- 
cles being  actuated  to  motion  through  kinetic 
energizement,  resulting,  temporarily,  in  spaces 
free  of  particles  near  the  bodies. 

The  zigzag  and  tree-like  forms  of  lightning 
probably  result  from  there  being  more  atmos- 
pheric particles  along  such  courses. 

Thunder,  which  is  due  to  the  concussion 


138  Theories  of  Energy 

caused  by  the  violent  expansion  produced 
by  the  lightning,  is  not  a  continuous,  uniform 
sound.  The  variations  in  the  sound  are 
probably  due  to  variations  in  the  number 
of  atmospheric  particles  along  the  course  of 
the  lightning,  the  sparser  the  particles,  the 
less  the  noise. 

Not  only  are  there  lines  of  densitic  inten- 
sion between  two  electrified  bodies,  but 
there  are  also  lines  of  densitic  vitiation. 

Photographs  of  lightning  (33)  sometimes 
show  black  streaks,  similar  in  form  to  streaks 
of  lightning,  and  referred  to  as  black  light- 
ning, a  phenomenon  which  has  not  heretofore 
been  explained.  The  explanation  evidently 
is  that  they  are  lines  of  densitic  vitiation, 
the  atmospheric  particles  along  such  lines 
having  no  luminosity. 

There  are  of  course  numerous  lines  of  den- 
sitic intension  between  two  electrified  bodies, 
and  a  number  of  streaks  of  light  can  often 
be  seen  simultaneously,  and  since  the  points 
of  densitic  intersection  are  very  numerous 
and  widely  scattered,  sparking  does  not 


Theory  of  Electricity  139 

always  occur  along  straight  lines  between 
the  two  bodies,  but  it  may  occur  along  curved 
or  zigzag  lines,  or  along  branching  lines, 
variously  directed. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  THEORY  OF  REFLECTION 

TJUYGENS'S  wavelet  theory  is  commonly 
*  applied  to  account  for  the  reflection 
of  light  (34),  it  being  supposed  that  the  wave- 
lets are  formed  at  the  reflecting  surface,  but 
no  explanation  has  been  given  as  to  the  cause 
of  the  wavelets.  The  theory  is  untenable, 
because  the  wavelets  would  give  vision  of 
the  points  at  the  reflecting  surface,  and  not 
of  the  object  which  is  in  fact  seen  by  reflected 
light. 

Such  wavelets  correspond  to  the  densits 
of  colour  energy,  or  analight  (35),  generated 
by  the  superficial  atoms  of  coloured  objects, 
according  to  the  theory  of  energizement, 
which  theory  supposes  that  the  analight  by 
which  objects  are  seen  is  generated  centro- 
140 


Theory  of  Reflection  141 

atomically  by  the  superficial  matter  under 
energizement  by  the  light  which  engages  it, 
the  sunlight,  daylight,  or  other  light. 

The  densitic  form  of  analight  is  hemispheri- 
cal if  the  surface  of  the  object  is  plane  or 
convex,  and  the  analight  gives  vision  in  all 
directions  above  the  surface  of  each  point  in 
the  surface. 

The  fact  that  the  eye  must  accommodate 
itself  to  different  distances  in  looking  at 
objects  nearby  shows  that  the  densitic  cur- 
vature in  the  analight  is  different  from  that 
in  the  reflected  light  from  a  distant  source, 
and  this  proves  that  the  analight  of  objects 
is  generated  at  their  surfaces,  and  that  objects 
are  not  seen  by  irregularly  reflected  light,  as 
is  commonly  supposed. 

If  light  be  reflected  from  a  coloured  object, 
analight  from  the  object  will  enter  the  eye 
with  reflected  light,  and  if  the  incident  light 
be  white,  the  reflected  light  will  be  white, 
and  the  colour  of  the  object,  if  other  than 
white,  will  not  be  seen. 

The   superficial  atoms  are  energized  by 


142  Theories  of  Energy 

some  of  the  manners  only  of  the  incident  light, 
and  the  analight  from  the  object  includes 
such  manners  only.  The  other  manners 
(except  such  as  are  lost  through  allomanne- 
rial  energizement)  are  reflected,  and  since 
the  analight  becomes  mingled  with  the 
reflected  light,  the  combination  of  the  two 
gives  white.  If  the  reflected  light  could  be 
separated  from  the  analight,  its  colour  would 
be  found  to  be  complementary  to  that  of  the 
object. 

In  some  cases  some  of  the  manners  of  the 
incident  light  are  lost  through  allomannerial 
energizement,  being  transformed  into  heat, 
and  then  the  reflected  light  will  not  have 
the  same  colour  as  the  incident  light,  as,  the 
light  from  an  electric  arc  lamp  reflected  from 
a  wet  street  or  sidewalk  is  lilac  coloured. 

When  light  falls  on  a  body  of  transparent 
matter,  a  portion  of  it  is  transmitted  through 
the  same,  and  the  rest  is  reflected,  the  sum 
of  the  transmitted  and  reflected  portions 
being  about  equal  to  the  incident  light. 

This  shows  that  some  of  the  manners  of 


Theory  of  Reflection  143 

the  light  are  transmitted,  and  that  the  other 
manners  are  reflected. 

Since  black  matter,  which  is  not  energiz- 
able  centroatomically  in  the  manners  of  light, 
reflects  light,  it  is  clear  that  reflection  is 
effected  at  the  surface  and  in  the  medium 
through  which  the  light  is  transmitted  to 
the  surface,  and  yet  surfaces  may  exist  under 
such  conditions  that  no  reflection  occurs 
thereat,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  if  two 
pieces  of  plate  glass,  the  surfaces  of  which 
have  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  are  put  to- 
gether, face  to  face,  so  that  the  two  surfaces 
are  in  perfect  contact  with  each  other  (36), 
there  will  not  be  any  internal  reflection  at 
the  surfaces  so  in  perfect  contact,  as  may  be 
seen  by  looking  at  the  reflection  of  a  candle 
flame  in  that  portion  of  the  glass.  In  that 
portion  only  one  internal  reflection  will  be 
seen,  being  from  the  back  surface  of  the  rear 
glass,  while  beyond  that  portion  two  internal 
reflections  will  be  seen,  one  being  from  the 
contiguous  surfaces,  between  which  there  is 
air. 


144  Theories  of  Energy 

This  shows  that  the  contiguousness  of 
two  unlike  media,  or  two  unlike  substances, 
of  different  energizabilities,  is  necessary  to 
reflection,  and  the  explanation  here  given 
depends  on  this. 

Owing  to  the  preservation  of  the  densitic 
form,  reflected  light  does  not  give  vision  of 
the  reflecting  surface,  and  if  no1  analight 
emanated  from  the  reflecting  body  it  would 
be  invisible,  but  there  is  probably  always 
some  centroatomic  energizement  of  the  super- 
ficial atoms  by  some  of  the  manners  of  the 
incident  light  or  by  the  light  energy  of  the 
air,  produced  by  the  incident  light  energizing 
the  atmospheric  particles  (37). 

Under  the  theory  here  advanced  it  is  sup- 
posed that  all  the  densits  which  are  not 
spent  in  energizement,  either  centroatomic  or 
transatomic,  are  reflected. 

The  densits,  positive  and  negative,  reach 
the  surface,  and  those  not  spent  in  energize- 
ment, being  unable  to  proceed  farther,  turn 
back,  as  it  were — that  is,  a  reaction  takes 
place,  whereby  the  dense  and  rare  conditions 


Theory  of  Reflection  145 

produced  at  the  surface  by  the  baffled  densits 
are  taken  up  by  the  medium  in  which  they 
occur,  and  the  manners  of  the  reflected  light 
are  the  same  as  the  baffled  manners. 

To  explain  this  more  clearly:  When  a 
positive  densit  arrives  at  a  reflecting  surface, 
matter  moves  up  against  the  surface,  pro- 
ducing a  dense  condition  thereat,  and  if  it  is 
not  taken  up  by  the  body  of  matter  at  which 
it  occurs,  it  is  taken  up  by  the  body  of  matter 
in  which  it  occurs,  positive  equalizing  action 
back  into  the  body  of  matter  taking  place, 
which  produces  a  positive  densit  in  the  system 
of  reflected  densits.  When  a  negative  densit 
arrives  at  a  reflecting  surface,  matter  moves 
away  from  the  surface,  producing  a  rare  con- 
dition thereat,  and  if  it  is  not  taken  up  by 
the  body  of  matter  at  which  it  occurs,  it  is 
taken  up  by  the  body  of  matter  in  which  it 
occurs,  negative  equalizing  action  back  into 
such  body  of  matter  taking  place,  which  pro- 
duces a  negative  densit  in  the  system  of 
reflected  densits. 

This  is  so  whether  the  reflecting  surface 


146  Theories  of  Energy 

be  the  surface  of  a  solid  body,  such  as  glass, 
the  light  coming  to  it  through  fluid  or  gase- 
ous matter,  such  as  water  or  air,  or  whether 
it  be  the  surface  of  a  body  of  fluid  or  gaseous 
matter,  the  light  coming  to  it  through  solid 
matter. 

The  essential  thing  is  that  the  two  sub- 
stances have  different  energizabilities,  for  if 
they  are  the  same  in  this  respect,  since  the 
manners  of  energy  are  all  transmissible 
through  one  of  such  bodies,  they  are  trans- 
missible through  the  other  also,  and  none  of 
the  manners  will  be  baffled. 

This  explains  why  no  reflection  occurs  at 
the  contact  surfaces  of  the  pieces  of  glass  in 
perfect  contact,  as  already  mentioned. 

If  there  were  a  perfect  void  at  the  surface 
of  a  piece  of  glass  it  would  be  an  effectual 
barrier  to  all  the  light  coming  through  the 
glass  to  such  surface,  and  all  the  light  would 
be  reflected,  because  none  of  it  could  be 
transmitted  through  the  void. 

The  amount  of  light  reflected  from  the 
surface  of  a  particular  body  of  matter  is  not 


Theory  of  Reflection  147 

the  same  in  all  media,  as,  more  light  is  re- 
flected from  a  piece  of  glass  in  the  air  than 
from  the  same  piece  of  glass  in  water  (38). 

The  explanation  of  this  is,  probably,  that, 
owing  to  the  different  velocities  in  the  differ- 
ent media,  the  densitic  interval  is  longer  in 
the  air  than  in  the  water,  the  frequency  being 
the  same  in  both  media.  The  difference  in 
interval  does  not  change  the  manneric  char- 
acter of  the  light,  but  it  probably  affects  the 
energizement. 

Each  little  part  of  a  densit  is  reflected  as 
it  reaches  the  surface,  and  the  reflection  of 
the  entire  densitic  segment  having  impact 
on  the  surface  is  a  continuous  process,  from 
the  point  of  first  impact  to  the  point  of  last 
impact,  so  that  the  same  is  reflected  as  a 
whole,  the  parts  not  being  reflected  inde- 
pendently. 

Since  the  velocity  after  reflection  is  the 
same  as  before,  the  densit  has  the  same  form 
after  reflection  as  before,  when  the  reflecting 
surface  is  plane,  and  its  curvature  is  the  same 
as  it  would  be  had  the  original  densit  pro- 


148  Theories  of  Energy 

ceeded  the  same  distance  without  being 
reflected. 

The  amount  of  light  reflected  is  different 
at  different  angles  of  reflection,  and  it  is  not 
the  same  in  this  respect  from  different  sub- 
stances. The  light  reflected  from  mercury 
is  about  the  same  at  all  angles,  but  with 
glass  the  variation  is  great,  being  from  almost 
nothing  at  perpendicular  incidence,  to  almost 
total  reflection  at  an  angle  of  eighty-nine 
degrees. 

The  reason  why  the  amount  of  reflected 
light  is  different  at  different  angles  of  inci- 
dence is,  evidently,  that  the  energizativity 
of  the  energy  is  different  at  different  angles 
of  incidence,  the  greater  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence, the  less  the  energizativity,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  greater  the  reflection. 

Probably  the  difference  in  densitic  inten- 
sity at  the  different  angles  of  incidence  affects 
the  energizativity  of  the  energy,  for  it  is 
obvious  that,  as  to  densits  from  the  same 
light  source,  the  densitic  intensity  is  greatest 
at  the  point  where  the  light  falls  perpendicu- 


Theory  of  Reflection  149 

larly  on  the  surface,  and  that  the  effective 
intensity  rapidly  diminishes  as  the  angle  of 
incidence  increases.  The  same  size  of  den- 
sitic  segment  which  covers  a  square  inch  of 
surface  at  normal  incidence  must  cover  two 
square  inches  of  surface  at  an  angle  of  inci- 
dence of  sixty  degrees,  which  means  that  the 
effective  intensity  is  reduced  one  half.  It  is 
probable  that  the  densitic  intensity  is  a 
factor  in  energizement. 

It  may  be,  also,  that  the  energizability  of 
the  matter  at  the  surface  of  the  body  is 
different  at  different  angles  of  incidence. 
Probably  the  surface  atoms  are  so  closely 
and  so  evenly  packed  together  that  when  the 
densits  impinge  at  an  acute  angle  the  atoms 
are  not  acted  on  squarely,  and  it  is  sup- 
posable  that  this  would  interfere  with  ener- 
gizement. 

DENSITIONAL  NORMALIZATION.  The  den- 
sitional  movement  in  any  part  of  a  reflected 
densit  is  normal  to  that  part  of  the  densit, 
just  as  it  was  in  the  densit  before  reflection, 
and  the  densitional  movement  in  any  part 


150  Theories  of  Energy 

of  a  refracted  densit  is  normal  to  that  part 
of  the  densit  also.  No  matter  how  a  densit 
may  change  its  direction,  and  no  matter 
how  it  may  be  deformed,  the  action  is  always 
normal  to  the  densit,  except  in  polarized 
densition  (see  note  3). 

Of  course  the  densitional  action  should 
be  along  the  line  of  propagation,  because 
densitic  propagation  depends  on  such  action, 
and  since  densitic  deformity  results  as  a  con- 
sequence of  the  changing  of  the  directions 
of  propagation  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
densit,  of  course  the  densitional  action  should, 
in  such  case,  be  normal  to  the  densit. 

The  maintenance  of  normality  between 
the  densition  and  the  densits  may  be  called 
Densitional  Normalization. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE  THEORY  OF  COLOUR 

PERCEPTION  is  the  discrimination  and 
recognition  of  the  states  of  energy  in 
the  perceptive  cells  of  the  brain,  which  are 
incited  by  energy  transmitted  from  the 
organs  of  sensation,  the  organs  of  sensation 
being  incited  to  energy  by  extraneous  ac- 
tion, the  mental  or  subjective  effect  being 
taken  as  the  external  or  objective  cause. 

Light  incites  the  retinal  cells  to  energy, 
which  is  conducted  along  the  fibres  of  the 
optic  nerve  to  the  cells  of  visual  perception 
in  the  brain,  which  are  thereby  incited  to 
energy,  and  the  different  statuses  of  energy 
(39)  in  the  perceptive  cells  are  discriminated 
and  recognized  as  different  colours. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  the  different  colour 


152  Theories  of  Energy 

perceptions  arise  from  energial  differences, 
and  it  must  be  supposed  that  the  energy  of 
each  colour  is  differentiated  at  the  time  it  is 
generated  at  the  external  source  of  generation, 
for  under  the  principle  that  like  causes  pro- 
duce like  effects  under  like  conditions,  it 
would  be  impossible  for  the  differentiation  to 
occur  after  the  energy  is  generated. 

It  is  commonly  thought  that  there  are 
three  primary  colours  for  light,  namely,  red, 
green,  and  violet,  and  three  primary  colours 
for  pigments,  namely,  red,  yellow,  and  blue. 
White  is  not  looked  upon  as  a  colour  at  all, 
being  regarded  as  uncoloured  light  (40). 

Under  the  theory  here  advanced  all  the 
colours  of  the  spectrum  are  primary  colours, 
except  the  green,  which  does  not  always  occur 
in  the  spectrum,  and  the  following  are 
considered  to  be  the  primary  colours:  Red, 
orange,  yellow,  chloro  (41),  glaucous  (42), 
blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  All  other  colours, 
including  white,  are  compound  colours. 

No  distinction  is  made  between  light  and 
colour,  for  all  light  is  coloured,  that  is,  all 


Theory  of  Colour  153 

light  produces  colour  perception.  There- 
fore white  is  a  colour.  No  one  doubts  that 
purple  is  a  colour,  and  purple  is  the  combina- 
tion of  red  and  violet.  Then  why  should 
the  combination  of  red  and  greenish  blue, 
being  white,  not  be  a  colour?  Surely  the 
substitution  of  greenish  blue  for  violet  does 
not  do  away  with  colour. 

Under  the  theory  the  colours  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  positive  and  negative, 
depending  on  the  quality  of  energy  which 
gives  the  colour:  red,  orange,  yellow,  and 
chloro  being  the  positive  primary  colours, 
and  glaucous,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet  being 
the  negative  primary  colours  (43). 

The  different  hues  of  the  positive  portion 
of  the  spectrum  are  supposed  to  be  produced 
by  different  manners,  broadly  speaking,  of 
positive  light  energy,  and  the  different 
hues  of  the  negative  portion  are  supposed  to 
be  produced  by  different  manners,  broadly 
speaking,  of  negative  light  energy,  and  the 
manners  of  the  two  portions  are  supposed  to 
correspond. 


154  Theories  of  Energy 

It  is  probable  that  the  energy  of  a  hue  is 
not  in  fact  monomanneric  (44),  but  for  our 
purposes  we  may  consider  it  to  be  so,  speak- 
ing broadly. 

Of  the  positive  colours,  red  has  the  lowest 
densitic  frequency;  next  comes  orange;  next 
comes  yellow,  and  then  comes  chloro  with 
the  highest  densitic  frequency. 

Of  the  negative  colours,  glaucous  has  the 
lowest  densitic  frequency;  next  comes  blue; 
next  comes  indigo,  and  then  comes  violet 
with  the  highest  densitic  frequency. 

The  red  therefore  corresponds  with  the  glau- 
cous ;  the  orange  with  the  blue ;  the  yellow  with 
the  indigo,  and  the  chloro  with  the  violet. 

Combinations  of  the  primary  colours  pro- 
duce compound  colours,  which  are  of  two 
kinds,  uniqualital  and  biqualital.  The  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  colours  of  the  same 
quality,  either  positive  or  negative,  gives 
a  uniqualital  compound  colour,  and  the 
combination  of  one  or  more  positive  colours 
and  one  or  more  negative  colours  gives  a 
biqualital  compound  colour. 


Theory  of  Colour  155 

Compound  colours  formed  by  combining 
positive  colours  are  Positive  compound 
colours,  and  those  formed  by  combining  nega- 
tive colours  are  Negative  compound  colours. 

Biqualital  compound  colours  in  which  the 
positive  colours  predominate  are  Posito- 
negative  compound  colours,  and  those  in 
which  the  negative  colours  predominate  are 
Negato-positive  compound  colours. 

The  posito-negative  -  compound  colours 
may  be  referred  to  by  the  general  name  of  the 
Greens,  and  the  negato-positive  compound 
colours  may  be  referred  to  by  the  general 
name  of  the  Purples. 

White  is  the  biqualital  compound  colour 
in  which  the  two  qualities  are  equal,  being 
the  Equiqualital  compound  colour. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  white  may  be 
produced  by  combining  colours  from  the  two 
halves  of  the  spectrum.  For  every  hue  in 
one  half  of  the  spectrum  there  is  a  comple- 
mentary hue  in  the  other  half,  the  combina- 
tion giving  white,  and  the  combination  of 
any  number  of  such  combinations  gives  white. 


156  Theories  of  Energy 

Write  the  first  letters  of  the  words  Red, 
Orange,  Yellow,  and  Chloro  in  a  line,  and 
below  them  write  the  first  letters  of  the 
words  Glaucous,  Blue,  Indigo,  and  Violet, 
thus: 

R    O    Y    C 
G    B     I     V 

Reading  vertically  we  get  the  comple- 
mentary colours:  R  and  G,  O  and  B,  Y  and 
I,  C  and  V. 

Reading  downward  and  to  the  right  we 
get  the  purple  combinations:  R  and  B,  R  and 
I,  R  and  V;  O  and  I,  O  and  V;  Y  and  V. 

Reading  upward  and  to  the  right  we  get 
the  green  combinations:  G  and  O,  G  and  Y, 
G  and  C;  B  and  Y,  B  and  C;  I  and  C. 
_The  corresponding  combinations  of  purple 
and  green,  as  here  given,  are  complementary 
to  each  other,  as,  R-B  and  G-O,  R-I  and  G- 
Y,  and  so  on. 

The  spectrum  purple  is  formed  by  combin- 
ing the  extreme  colours  red  and  violet,  and 


Theory  of  Colour  157 

the  spectrum  green  is  formed  by  combining 
the  extreme  colours  glaucous  and  chloro. 

Complementarism  clearly  shows  that  there 
is  some  differentiating  feature  which  divides 
the  colours  of  the  spectrum  into  two  distinct 
classes,  and  the  only  energial  feature  which 
has  two  and  only  two  distinctive  characters  is 
the  energial  quality,  there  being  two  qualities, 
the  positive  and  the  negative.  ^ 

For  colours  to  be  complementary  to  each 
other  they  must  be  mannerically  the  same, 
that  is,  they  must  have  the  same  densitic 
frequency,  for  otherwise  one  quality  will 
preponderate  over  the  other.  If  a  system  of 
energy  of  one  quality  and  of  one  manner, 
that  is,  of  one  frequency,  .be  combined  with 
one  of  the  opposite  quality  of  greater  densitic 
frequency,  there  will  be  more  densits  of  the 
latter  system  in  a  given  space  than  of  the 
former,  and  the  more  frequent  will  therefore 
preponderate  over  the  less  frequent.  If  the 
densitic  frequencies  and  intensities  are  the 
same,  the  two  qualities  are  equal,  and  white 
is  the  result. 


158  Theories  of  Energy 

As  already  stated,  green  is  commonly 
looked  upon  as  a  primary  colour.  The 
spectrum  purple  results  from  the  combina- 
tion of  red  and  violet,  and  the  spectrum 
purple  and  spectrum  green  are  comple- 
mentary colours.  Then,  since  purple  is  a 
biqualital  compound  colour,  its  complemen- 
tary colour  (green)  must  be  also.  This 
establishes  the  compound  character  of  green 
beyond  dispute. 

White  cannot  be  produced  by  mixing  sub- 
stances of  complementary  colours,  but  by 
combining  complementary  systems  of  energy, 
either  from  luminous  bodies  or  from  coloured 
matter,  that  is,  by  combining  complementary 
systems  of  light  or  of  analight,  white  may  be 
produced. 

The  reason  why  white  cannot  be  produced 
by  mixing  pigments  of  complementary  col- 
ours is  that  reciprocal  energizement  occurs 
between  the  substances  when  mixed,  and 
their  energitias  are  thereby  modified,  so  that 
when  the  combined  substances  are  energized 
by  light,  neither  emits  the  same  analight 


Theory  of  Colour  159 

that  it  does  when  energized  separately  (45). 

We  may  combine  the  analight  from  orange 
coloured  paint  with  the  analight  from  blue 
paint,  the  two  paints  not  being  mixed,  and 
the  result  is  white,  but  when  the  two  paints 
are  mixed,  the  result  is  green.  _ 

To  produce  the  spectrum  purple,  lay  a 
strip  of  black  paper  or  cloth  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  wide  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and 
look  at  it  through  a  prism  from  a  distance 
of  several  feet.  The  purple  will  be  seen 
where  the  violet  overlaps  the  red. 

First  hold  the  prism  about  six  inches  from 
the  strip,  with  the  apex  of  the  prism  upper- 
most, and  the  red-yellow  colours  will  be  seen 
above  the  upper  edge  of  the  strip,  over  the 
white  paper,  and  the  blue- violet  colours  will  be 
seen  above  the  lower  edge  of  the  strip,  over 
the  black  strip.  As  the  distance  between 
the  prism  and  the  strip  is  increased,  the 
violet  widens  out  more  and  more  toward  the 
red,  and  when  the  distance  is  great  enough 
the  violet  apparently  overlaps  the  red,  pro- 
ducing purple. 


160  Theories  of  Energy 

The  apparent  overlapping  is  accomplished 
as  follows:  No  colour  energy  comes  from  the 
black  strip.  The  blue-violet  colours  are 
segregated,  through  dispersion,  from  the 
composite  white  analight  which  comes  from 
the  white  paper  on  the  near  side  of  the  strip, 
and  the  red-yellow  colours  are  segregated 
from  the  white  analight  which  comes  from 
the  white  paper  on  the  far  side  of  the  strip. 

The  white  analight  from  the  paper  is 
hemispherical  in  densitic  form,  and  the 
densitic  curvature  decreases  with  distance, 
becoming  less  as  the  densits  expand.  The 
angularity  between  the  densits  from  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  strip  also  decreases 
with  distance.  The  densitic  curvature  and 
angularity  have  much  to  do  with  refraction 
and  the  dispersion  of  colours. 

The  violet  appears  to  be  over  the  black 
strip  because  the  violet  densits  are  so  turned 
by  the  prism  that  the  densitic  incidence  (46) 
on  the  eye  is  the  same  as  it  would  be  if  the 
densits  actually  came  from  the  points  where 
the  colour  appears  to  be. 


Theory  of  Colour  161 

The  greater  the  distance  between  the  paper 
and  the  prism,  the  less  the  densitic  curvature 
and  angularity  at  the  prism,  and  when  the 
distance  is  great  enough  the  violet  densits 
are  so  turned  that  they  have  incidence  on 
the  eye  the  same  as  they  would  have  if  they 
came  from  the  points  where  the  red  densits 
come  from,  which  means  that  they  are 
parallel  with  the  red  densits,  and  they 
therefore  reach  the  same  retinal  cells  that 
the  red  densits  do,  and  the  two  systems 
of  densits  are  thereby  combined  in  the 
retinal  cells.. 

Now  lay  a  strip  of  white  paper  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  wide  on  a  piece  of  black 
cloth.  Upon  looking  through  the  prism  at 
the  strip  from  a  distance  of  about  six  inches 
the  red-yellow  colours  will  be  seen  above  the 
lower  edge  of  the  strip  and  over  the  strip, 
and  the  blue-violet  colours  will  be  seen  above 
the  upper  edge  of  the  strip  and  over  the  black 
cloth.  As  the  distance  between  the  prism 
and  strip  is  increased  the  chloro  approaches 
the  glaucous,  and  when  the  distance  is  great 


162  Theories  of  Energy 

enough  the  chloro  overlaps  the  glaucous, 
apparently,  producing  green. 

Let  the  sun  shine  through  the  prism  and 
let  the  spectrum  fall  on  a  piece  of  white  paper 
on  the  floor  (47) .  When  the  distance  between 
the  prism  and  paper  is  not  great,  the  divided 
spectrum  will  be  seen,  the  two  sets  of  colours, 
the  red-yellow  set  and  the  blue-violet  set, 
being  separated  by  a  white  stripe,  and  no 
green  will  be  present.  As  the  distance  be- 
tween the  prism  and  paper  is  increased,  the 
white  stripe  becomes  narrower  and  narrower, 
and  finally  the  chloro  apparently  overlaps  the 
glaucous,  and  the  green  appears. 

The  chloro  does  not  in  fact  overlap  the 
glaucous.  In  the  case  of  looking  through 
the  prism  at  the  strip  of  white  paper,  the 
white  between  the  two  sets  of  colours  is  the 
result  of  the  combination  of  all  the  colours. 
As  the  distance  between  the  prism  and  paper 
is  increased  the  densitic  curvature  and 
angularity  decrease,  and  the  densits  which, 
after  refraction,  were  parallel,  and  which, 
on  account  of  being  parallel,  produced  the 


Theory  of  Colour  163 

white  combination,  are  differently  refracted 
and  thrown  out  of  parallelism  after  refraction, 
and  the  white  combination  is  gradually 
broken  up,  the  negative  colours  being  gradu- 
ally eliminated  from  the  lower  portion  of 
the  white,  leaving  the  positive  colours,  and 
when  the  distance  is  great  enough  the  white 
entirely  disappears,  chloro  and  yellow  having 
taken  its  place.  With  a  further  increase  in 
distance  a  new  combination  arises  between 
the  chloro  and  glaucous,  the  densits  of  which 
become  parallel,  giving  the  spectrum  green. 

In  the  case  of  the  spectrum  produced  by 
the  sunlight,  the  densitic  curvature  being 
inappreciable,  owing  to  the  great  distance  of 
the  sun,  the  refraction  and  dispersion  are 
at  maximum,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the 
prism  the  densits  of  the  different  colours  have 
divergent  directions,  and  when  the  distance 
between  the  prism  and  paper  is  great  enough 
they  fall  on  the  paper  at  different  points, 
all  not  falling  together  at  any  point,  so  that 
there  is  no  white,  but  when  the  distance  is 
short  all  the  colours  fall  together  on  the  paper 


164  Theories  of   Energy 

at  the  middle  of  the  spectrum,  producing 
white,  as  explained  in  note  47. 

As  to  the  elimination  of  one  of  the  qualities 
of  the  energy:  Under  the  theory  it  is  not 
supposed  that  the  two  qualities  of  densits  of 
the  same  system  are  separated  and  trans- 
mitted separately  in  order  to  produce  the 
two  qualities  of  colours,  but  it  is  supposed 
that  one  of  the  qualities  in  each  case  is 
eliminated  from  the  light  mannery  by  allo- 
mannerial  energizement,  being  the  disquali- 
tal  method  of  energizement. 

In  the  case  of  a  positive  colour  the  negative 
quality  is  thrown  into  the  heat  or  chemical 
mannery,  and  in  the  case  of  a  negative  colour 
the  positive  quality  is  thrown  into  one  or  the 
other  of  such  manneries,  so  that  while  the 
two  qualities  in  any  case  still  accompany 
each  other,  only  one  of  them  belongs  to  the 
light  mannery,  and  therefore  only  one  of 
them  is  effective  for  vision. 

Since  both  qualities  of  energy  are  present, 
light  in  which  either  quality  of  colour  pre- 
ponderates, when  transmitted  transatomi- 


Theory  of  Colour  165 

cally,  does  not  produce  motion,  which  it 
would  if  one  quality  were  absent,  although 
some  matter  may,  under  some  conditions,  be 
energizable  kinetically  by  some  of  the  man- 
ners of  light  (48). 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  THEORY  OF  DOUBLE  REFRACTION 

A  S  is  well  known,  many  crystalline  sub- 
**  stances,  such  as  Iceland  spar,  are  doubly 
refractive,  that  is,  when  a  beam  of  light  is 
transmitted  through  them  it  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  which  are  differently  refracted,  or 
transmitted  in  slightly  different  directions, 
and  when  we  look  through  such  a  crystal 
objects  are  seen  double. 

That  double  refraction  depends  on  differ- 
ences in  the  velocities  of  the  two  parts  of 
light  in  the  crystal  is  so  well  known  as  to 
require  no  consideration  here.  Suffice  it 
to  say,  that  if  we  suppose  the  light  to  be 
generated  at  a  point  in  the  crystal,  so  that 
it  would  proceed  in  all  directions  from  the 
point  of  generation,  the  densitic  form  of  one 
166 


Theory  of  Double  Refraction     167 

part  of  the  light  (the  part  which  is  referred 
to  as  the  ordinarily  refracted  part)  would  be 
spherical,  and  the  densitic  form  of  the  other 
part  (which  is  referred  to  as  the  extraordi- 
narily refracted  part)  would  be  ellipsoidal,  the 
ellipsoidal  form  being  due  to  the  fact  that 
that  part  of  the  light  has  different  velocities 
in  different  directions  through  the  crystal. 
In  some  crystals  (Iceland  spar,  for  example) 
the  lowest  velocity  of  the  ellipsoidal  densits 
agrees  with  the  velocity  of  the  spherical 
densits,  while  the  higher  velocities  of  the 
ellipsoidal  densits  are  greater  than  the 
velocity  of  the  spherical  densits.  In  other 
crystals  (quartz,  for  example)  the  highest 
velocity  of  the  ellipsoidal  densits  agrees 
with  the  velocity  of  the  spherical  densits, 
and  the  lower  velocities  are  less  than  the 
velocity  of  the  spherical  densits.  And  in 
other  crystals  (topaz,  for  example)  the  lowest 
velocity  of  the  ellipsoidal  densits  is  less  than 
the  velocity  of  the  spherical  densits,  and  the 
highest  velocity  is  greater  than  the  velocity 
of  the  spherical  densits. 


1 68  Theories  of  Energy 

Under  the  undulatory  theory  of  light  it  is 
supposed  that  double  refraction  is  due  to  the 
ether  around  the  molecules  in  the  body  hav- 
ing different  degrees  of  elasticity  in  different 
directions,  and  to  the  light  having  transverse 
vibrations  in  different  directions,  the  vibra- 
tions of  one  direction  being  ordinarily  re- 
fracted, and  the  vibrations  at  right  angles 
thereto  being  extraordinarily  refracted,  the 
two  parts  of  light  being  thereby  polarized, 
that  is,  the  transverse  vibrations  of  different 
directions  being  segregated. 

Under  the  theory  here  advanced  the  crystal 
(the  atomic  matter)  is  supposed  to  have  differ- 
ent degrees  of  elasticity  in  different  directions, 
and  on  this  account  some  of  the  manners  of 
light,  of  both  qualities,  have  different  ve- 
loqities  in  different  directions  through  the 
crystal,  while  the  other  manners,  of  both 
qualities,  have  the  same  velocity  in  all 
directions.  Double  refraction  is  not  sup- 
posed to  depend  on  polarization. 

Tourmaline  is  especially  adapted  for  show- 
ing the  supposed  dependence  of  double 


Theory  of  Double  Refraction     169 

refraction  on  polarization.  Some  of  the 
varieties  of  tourmaline  are  both  transparent 
and  translucent,  the  part  of  light  which  is 
transmitted  being  extraordinarily  refracted, 
and  the  other  part  being  spent  in  centro- 
atomic  energizement,  causing  the  translu- 
cency,  but  in  the  dark  variety  (commonly 
used  for  tourmaline  tongs)  the  centroatomic 
energizement  is  allomannerial  (49),  so  that 
the  crystal  is  not  translucent,  and  the  trans- 
mitted light  is  weak,  showing  that  more 
than  half  of  the  light  is  lost  through  allo- 
mannerial energizement. 

If  two  plates  of  tourmaline,  cut  in  a  certain 
way  as  to  the  optic  axis  of  the  crystal,  are 
placed  together,  face  to  face,  with  their 
optic  axes  parallel,  the  extraordinarily  re- 
fracted light  will  be  transmitted  through 
both,  but  if  one  of  the  plates  is  turned 
through  ninety  degrees,  no  light  will  be 
transmitted  through  the  second  plate  (50). 

When  two  plates  of  other  doubly  refractive 
substances  are  used  all  or  nearly  all  the  light 
is  transmitted  through  both  plates,  however 


170  Theories  of  Energy 

turned,  the  division  of  the  light  into  parts  not 
perventing  its  transmission,  showing  that  the 
extinction  of  the  light  in  tourmaline  depends 
on  the  peculiar  energizability  of  that  mineral. 

With  the  infra-red  rays  (heat  rays)  Iceland 
spar  acts  like  tourmaline  does  with  light  (51), 
which  shows  that  polarization  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  extinction  of  the  light  in 
tourmaline,  but  that  the  energizability  of  the 
matter  and  the  mannerism  of  the  energy  are 
the  all-important  factors. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  not  necessary  to 
suppose  that  the  densitional  movements  in 
either  the  original  light  or  the  light  trans- 
mitted through  the  first  plate  of  tourmaline 
are  other  than  in  the  lines  of  propagation. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
fact  that  the  light  transmitted  through  the 
first  plate  reaches  the  second  plate  at  an 
angle.  It  is  not  even  necessary  to  suppose 
that  the  light  be  polarized,  although  of  course 
it  may  be  polarized. 

The  incidence  of  the  light  on  the  second 
plate  being  at  an  angle,  and  the  densitic 


Theory  of  Double  Refraction     171 

movements  being  in  the  line  of  propagation, 
when  the  plates  are  crossed,  the  molecules 
of  the  second  plate  are  presented  to  the  densi- 
tion  in  a  certain  way  with  regard  to  some 
directional  peculiarity  of  the  molecules. 

All  doubly  refractive  matter  is  molecular, 
and  it  may  be  that  the  different  kinds  of 
atoms  in  the  molecules  are  arranged  in  a  cer- 
tain way  with  regard  to  the  crystal  form. 

That  the  energizing  effects  of  light  at  differ- 
ent angles  of  incidence  are  different  is  seen  in 
connection  with  the  reflection  of  light,  and  it 
is  also  shown  by  the  following  experiments: 

The  room  being  darkened  by  pulling  down 
the  window  curtains,  make  a  hole  about  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  in  a  curtain, 
the  hole  to  be  about  six  inches  above  the  top 
of  a  table  or  stand. 

Place  the  stand  close  to  the  window,  and, 
propping  a  book  up  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty-five  degrees  on  the  stand,  place  a  piece 
of  quarter-inch  plate  glass,  about  four  inches 
square,  on  the  inclined  book,  the  glass  to  be 
within  a  foot  of  the  hole  in  the  curtain. 


172  Theories  of  Energy 

Two  bright  images  of  the  illuminated  hole 
will  be  seen  upon  looking  at  the  glass,  the 
light  for  one  being  reflected  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  glass,  and  the  light  for  the  other 
being  reflected  at  the  lower  surface  of  the 
glass.  A  faint  image,  produced  by  a  second 
internal  reflection,  will  also  be  seen. 

Keeping  the  glass  on  the  book,  turn  it 
around,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  images 
maintain  their  relative  positions  during  the 
entire  rotation,  none  of  them  being  percepti- 
bly dislocated. 

Now  lessen  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the 
glass  to  about  twenty  degrees  with  the  top  of 
the  stand,  and  upon  rotating  the  glass  as  be- 
fore it  will  be  seen  that  the  images  produced 
by  the  internal  reflections  change  their  posi- 
tions somewhat  as  to  the  image  produced 
by  the  external  reflection,  moving  around  in 
little  orbits,  with  the  externally  reflected 
image  outside  thereof. 

Now  repeat  the  experiment  with  the  glass 
horizontal,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  move- 
ments of  the  images  produced  by  the  internal 


Theory  of  Double  Refraction     173 

reflections  are  greater  than  before.  They  move 
in  elliptical  orbits,  and  at  one  position  they 
coincide  with  the  externally  reflected  image. 

Now  move  the  stand  back  about  seven  feet 
and  repeat  the  experiments  with  the  glass  at 
the  different  angles,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  movements  of  the  internally  reflected 
images  are  much  greater  than  they  were  close 
to  the  window.  With  the  glass  inclined 
at  forty-five  degrees  they  move  in  quite 
large  orbits,  coinciding  at  one  point  with 
the  externally  reflected  image,  and  at  the 
lower  angles  of  inclination  they  move  in  el- 
liptical orbits  around  the  externally  reflected 
image,  passing  close  by  its  sides. 

At  a  distance  of  fourteen  feet  the  effects 
are  still  more  pronounced. 

Now  move  the  stand  close  to  the  window 
again,  and  use  two  pieces  of  plate  glass, 
placing  one  on  top  of  the  other,  and  having 
the  book  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees.  A  number  of  internally  re- 
flected images  will  now  be  seen,  and  upon 
turning  the  glasses  around  together  it  will 


174  Theories  of   Energy 

be  seen  that  the  weak  internally  reflected 
images  have  considerable  movement,  the 
strong  ones  remaining  stationary. 

These  experiments  show  several  things: 
They  show  the  effect  of  structural  peculiari- 
ties, for  plate  glass  is  rolled  and  its  structural 
character  is  not  the  same  in  the  direction  in 
which  it  is  rolled  as  at  right  angles  thereto ;  they 
show  that  the  effects  are  different  at  different 
angles  of  incidence,  and  they  show  that  the  ef- 
fects are  different  with  different  intensities  of 
light,  for  in  the  experiments  the  light  has  differ- 
ent intensities  at  the  different  distances. 

The  image  produced  by  the  externally 
reflected  light  remains  stationary,  because 
that  light  is  not  affected  by  the  structural 
peculiarities  of  the  glass.  Its  densitic  form 
is  that  of  a  spherical  segment. 

When  the  other  images  remain  stationary 
during  the  rotation  of  the  glass,  the  densitic 
form  of  that  light  is  also  that  of  a  spherical 
segment,  but  when  they  change  their  posi- 
tions during  the  rotation,  the  densitic  form  of 
the  light  is  that  of  an  ellipsoidal  segment. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  THEORY  OF  POLARIZATION 

TN  1678  Christian  Huygens,  a  Dutch  physi- 
cist, advanced  the  first  vibratory  theory 
of  light,  which  is  commonly  referred  to  as 
a  theory  of  longitudinal  vibrations,!  that  is, 
vibrations  in  the  directions  of  the  lines  of 
propagation. 

In  1669  Bartholinus  discovered  double 
refraction,  and  in  1690  Huygens,  while 
investigating  the  phenomenon,  discovered 
that  the  two  parts  of  light  transmitted  by 
Iceland  spar  were  different  in  a  way,  being, 
as  we  now  say,  differently  polarized. 

Huygens  was  not  able  to  explain  polariza- 
tion by  his  theory  of  light,  and  in  order  to 
explain  it,  Fresnel  advanced  the  theory  of 
transverse  vibrations,  the  present  undulatory 
175 


176  Theories  of   Energy 

theory,  which,  because  it  affords  an  explana- 
tion of  polarization,  has  become  the  accepted 
theory  (52). 

Polarization,  therefore,  is  a  very  interesting 
subject  here,  for  the  idea  of  transverse 
vibrations  does  not  enter  into  the  theory  of 
energy  herein  advanced,  although,  as  will 
be  seen,  the  densitional  movements  are, 
under  the  conditions  under  which  polariza- 
tion occurs,  naturally  at  angles  to  the  lines  of 
propagation. 

The  accepted  theory  is  that  the  vibrations 
in  common  or  unpolarized  light  are  in  all 
directions  transverse  to  the  lines  of  propaga- 
tion (53),  and  that  when  the  vibrations  do 
not  occur  in  all  such  transverse  directions 
the  light  is  polarized. 

Polarization  occurs  in  reflected,  refracted, 
and  diffracted  light;  the  skylight  is  polarized, 
and  so  is  the  light  which  comes  obliquely 
from  a  luminous  body  (54). 

Under  the  theory  here  advanced  light  is 
supposed  to  be  polarized  when  the  densitional 
movements  are  not  parallel  with  the  lines 


Theory  of  Polarization          177 

of  propagation,  not  normal  to  the  densits. 
In  other  words,  polarization  is  densitional 
denormalization,  the  denormalization  being 
caused  by  densitic  intersection. 

When  the  densits  of  different  systems 
intersect  each  other  at  an  angle,  since  the 
matter  cannot  move  in  the  several  directions 
simultaneously,  it  moves  in  a  single  direction, 
in  what  may  be  called  the  line  of  the  resultant, 
and  in  this  connection  the  relative  intensities 
of  the  intersecting  densits  must  be  taken  into 
account. 

This  denormalization  of  the  densitional 
movements  as  to  all  or  some  of  the  intersect- 
ing densits  is  supposed  to  be  polarization  of 
such  densits. 

POLARIZATION  OF  LIGHT  PROPAGATED 
OBLIQUELY  FROM  A  LUMINOUS  BODY.  If 
we  let  the  altitude  of  an  isosceles  triangle 
represent  a  line  of  propagation  of  one  system 
of  densits,  and  let  the  two  equal  sides  of  the 
triangle  represent  lines  of  propagation  of 
two  other  densitic  systems,  the  densits  of  the 
three  systems  intersecting  at  the  apex  of 


1 78  Theories  of  Energy 

the  triangle,  the  densits  proceeding  along  the 
altitude  would  not  be  polarized,  because 
that  would  be  the  line  of  the  resultant,  but 
those  proceeding  along  the  sides  of  the  tri- 
angle would  be  polarized  at  the  point  of  inter- 
section, and  they  would  be  densits  propagated 
obliquely  from  the  luminous  body  from  which 
the  three  systems  of  densits  are  supposed  to 
have  come,  a  luminous  sphere,  say. 

In  such  a  case  the  densitional  movements 
at  the  points  of  intersection  are  normal  to 
the  densits  propagated  along  the  normal 
lines,  but  not  to  those  propagated  along  the 
oblique  lines. 

'  POLARIZATION  OF  THE  SKYLIGHT  AND  OF 
DIFFRACTED  LIGHT.  As  has  been  explained, 
the  skylight  is  supposed  to  be  the  centro- 
atomic  energy  of  the  atmospheric  particles 
under  energizement  by  the  sunlight,  and 
diffracted  light  is  supposed  to  be  the  cen- 
troatomic  energy  of  the  atmospheric  particles 
also. 

In  both  cases  the  densitic  form  is  spherical, 
and  the  densits  expand  as  they  proceed  from 


Theory  of  Polarization 


179 


their  respective  points  of  generation,  and 
those  from  the  various  points  of  generation 
intersect  each  other,  and  such  intersection, 
under  the  theory,  causes  polarization,  as 
illustrated  in  Drawing  A,  in  which  the  dots 


B 


A. 

DRAWING  A. 

A,  B,  and  C  represent  three  atmospheric 
particles,  and  the  arcs  D,  E,  and  F  represent 
segments  of  spherical  densits  generated  at 
the  particles,  respectively. 


i8o  Theories  of  Energy 

Owing  to  the  different  distances  over 
which  these  densits  have  proceeded,  they 
have  different  curvatures,  so  that  they  inter- 
sect each  other,  as  shown,  the  lines  of  inter- 
section being  circular.  Of  course  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  atmospheric  particles 
should  be  in  a  line  in  order  for  the  densits  to 
intersect. 

The  densits  have  the  same  velocity,  and  as 
they  proceed  they  maintain  their  relative 
positions,  and,  though  their  curvatures  be- 
come less,  they  continue  to  intersect  each 
other. 

Since  the  matter  at  a  point  of  intersection 
cannot  move  in  two  diverse  directions 
simultaneously,  the  line  of  movement,  being 
the  line  of  the  resultant,  is  not  normal  to 
either  of  the  intersecting  densits. 

To  get  an  idea  of  the  intersections  occur- 
ring throughout  the  expanse  of  any  densit, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  imagine  a  continuous 
series  of  densits  proceeding  away  from  each 
atmospheric  particle,  and  this  may  be  illus- 
trated by  describing  a  great  number  of  con- 


Theory  of  Polarization  181 

centric  circles,  close  together,  around  each 
of  the  dots  A,  B,  and  C. 

POLARIZATION  OF  REFLECTED  AND  RE- 
FRACTED LIGHT.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that 
light  which  is  reflected  from  the  surface  of 
an  opaque  body  is  not  polarized,  a  trans- 
parent body  in  which  internal  reflection  may 
occur  being  necessary,  although  the  analight 
from  an  opaque  body  may  cause  slight 
polarization  of  the  light  reflected  from  such 
a  body. 

Light  which  is  reflected  perpendicularly, 
or  which  is  transmitted  perpendicularly  is 
not  polarized.  Only  light  which  is  reflected 
or  transmitted  other  than  perpendicularly 
is  polarized,  and  the  polarization  increases, 
qualitatively,  as  the  angle  of  incidence  in- 
creases, reaching  a  maximum  at  some  angle, 
referred  to  as  the  polarizing  angle,  after 
which  it  decreases. 

The  polarizing  angle  is  different  with 
different  substances,  depending  on  the  ve- 
locity of  the  light  in  the  substance.  With 
glass  it  is  54>£  degrees.  There  is  no  good 


1 82  Theories  of   Energy 

explanation  of  this  under  the  theory  of  trans- 
verse vibrations,  but  the  reason  is  obvious 
under  the  explanation  of  polarization  here 
given,  for  it  is  at  once  clear  that,  in  the  case 
of  reflected  light  especially,  since  the  velocity 
of  the  light  in  the  substance  affects  the 
polarization,  light  which  has  travelled  in 
(been  internally  reflected  in)  the  substance 
must  play  a  part  in  the  polarization. 

Under  the  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the 
polarization  of  reflected  light  is  due  to  the 
intersection  of  the  several  densitic  systems 
produced  by  the  external  and  internal  re- 
flections, and  that  the  polarization  of  re- 
fracted light  is  due  to  the  intersection  of 
the  several  densitic  systems  in  the  trans- 
mitted light,  the  system  transmitted  directly 
and  the  systems  resulting  from  internal 
reflections. 

The  manner  in  which  polarization  in  re- 
flected and  refracted  light  is  effected  is  illus- 
trated in  Drawing  B,  in  which  AA  represents 
a  piece  of  plate  glass  (edge  view),  and  the 
dotted  arc  B,  the  solid  arc  C,  and  the  dashed 


Theory  of  Polarization 


arc  D  represent  segments  of  densits  generated 
at  points  E,  F,  and  G,  respectively. 


DRAWING  B. 
The  dotted  lines  throughout  the  drawing 


1 84  Theories  of   Energy 

pertain  to  densit  B,  the  solid  lines  to  densit 
C,  and  the  dashed  lines  to  densit  D. 

These  densitic  segments  will  impinge  on 
the  glass  between  points  H  and  I,  the  line 
El  indicating  an  angle  of  incidence  of  densit 
B  of  64^  degrees;  the  line  FI  indicating  an 
angle  of  incidence  of  densit  C  of  54^  degrees, 
and  the  line  GI  indicating  an  angle  of  in- 
cidence of  densit  D  of  44^  degrees,  the  three 
angles  of  incidence  being  given  for  the  pur- 
pose of  comparison. 

There  will  be  external  reflections  between 
points  H  and  I,  the  arcs  J,  K,  and  L  represent- 
ing densits  of  the  externally  reflected  lights. 
There  will  also  be  a  number  of  internal 
reflections,  the  curves  J',  K',  and  L'  represent- 
ing densits  of  systems  resulting  from  the 
first  internal  reflections. 

The  curves  M,  N,  and  O  represent  densits 
of  the  three  systems  of  light  transmitted 
directly,  and  the  curves  M',  N',  and  O' 
represent  densits  of  systems  which  have  been 
internally  reflected  and  transmitted. 

The  internal  reflections  increase  in  number 


Theory  of  Polarization          185 

as  the  angle  of  incidence  increases,  and  the 
systems  in  the  reflected  and  transmitted 
light  increase  accordingly.  In  the  drawing 
only  one  system  is  shown  on  each  side  of  the 
glass  in  each  of  the  three  cases  as  resulting 
from  internal  reflection. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  corresponding 
curves  J  and  J',  K  and  K',  L  and  L'  are  not 
parallel,  so  that,  there  being  a  continuous 
series  of  densits  of  each  kind  proceeding  away 
from  the  glass,  the  densits  of  the  two  series 
in  each  case  will  intersect,  those  of  the  J  and 
J'  series  intersecting  each  other;  those  of  the 
K  and  K'  series  intersecting  each  other,  and 
soon. 

There  will  not  be  any  intersection  along 
the  normal  line  P,  because  the  densits  of  the 
different  series  are  parallel  along  that  line. 

By  carrying  portions  of  the  arcs  J,  K,  and 
L  normally  outward  to  intersect  the  curves 
J',  K',  and  L',  respectively,  as  shown  at  Q, 
R,  and  S,  the  angles  of  intersection  of  the  two 
series  of  densits  in  each  case  may  be  deter- 
mined, and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  angle  of 


1 86  Theories  of  Energy 

intersection  is  greatest  at  R,  between  the 
densits  reflected  at  an  angle  of  54^  degrees. 

The  angles  of  intersection  in  the  three 
cases,  as  shown  by  the  radial  lines,  are:  At 
Q,  about  8^2  degrees ;  at  R,  about  9^  degrees, 
and  at  S,  about  9^  degrees. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  corresponding 
curves  M  and  M',  N  and  N',  O  and  O'  are 
not  parallel,  so  that,  there  being  a  continuous 
series  of  densits  of  each  kind  proceeding  away 
from  the  glass,  the  densits  of  the  two  series 
in  each  case  will  intersect,  those  of  the  M 
and  M'  series  intersecting  each  other;  those 
of  the  N  and  N'  series  intersecting  each  other, 
and  so  on. 

There  will  not  be  any  intersection  of  the 
transmitted  systems  along  the  normal  line 
T,  because  the  densits  of  the  different  series 
are  parallel  along  that  line. 

By  carrying  portions  of  the  curves  M,  N, 
and  O  normally  outward  to  intersect  the 
curves  M',  N',  and  O',  respectively,  as  shown 
at  U,  V,  and  W,  the  angles  of  intersection  of 
the  two  series  of  densits  in  each  case  may  be 


Theory  of  Polarization  187 

determined,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  angle 
of  intersection  is  greatest  at  V,  between 
the  densits  refracted  at  an  angle  of  54^ 
degrees. 

The  angles  of  intersection  in  the  three 
cases,  as  shown  by  the  radial  lines,  are:  At 
U,  about  6^4  degrees;  at  V,  about  8^2  de- 
grees, and  at  W,  about  7>£  degrees. 

We  therefore  see  why  there  is  an  angle  of 
maximum  polarization,  qualitatively,  in  re- 
flected and  refracted  light,  and  why  the  angle 
varies  with  the  velocity. 

With  a  single  plate  of  glass  the  reflected 
and  refracted  lights  are  only  partially  polar- 
ized, quantitatively,  but  with  a  number  of 
plates  together  both  the  reflected  and  re- 
fracted lights  become  completely  polarized, 
quantitatively  (55). 

The  number  of  systems  of  reflected  and 
refracted  light  of  course  increases  as  the 
number  of  plates  of  glass  increases,  owing 
to  the  number  of  internal  reflections  increas- 
ing, and  as  the  number  of  systems  of  light 
increases,  the  densitic  intersections  increase. 


188  Theories  of  Energy 

Hence  the  increase  in  quantity  of  polariza- 
tion. 

Complete  polarization  obtains  when  the 
densitional  denormalization  is  continuous 
along  the  densits,  necessitating  very  numerous 
densitic  intersections. 

To  understand  that  polarization  is  due  to 
densitic  intersection,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
consider  that  the  light  reflected  externally 
and  internally  from  the  first  plate  of  glass  is 
present  however  many  plates  are  used,  and 
these  portions  make  up  quite  a  portion  of  the 
total  light  reflected  from  all  the  plates,  and 
since  that  portion  would  be  only  partially 
polarized,  complete  polarization  of  all  the 
reflected  light  would  be  impossible  unless 
that  portion  be  further  polarized  by  the 
light  reflected  from  the  other  plates.  The 
same  reasoning  applies  to  the  transmitted 
light  also. 

The  same  principle  of  densitic  intersection 
applies  in  double  refraction,  for  not  only  do 
internal  reflections  occur  in  both  parts  of  the 
light,  giving  rise  to  densitic  intersection, 


Theory  of  Polarization          189 

but  the  densitic  forms  of  the  two  parts  of 
light  being  different,  intersection  occurs 
between  the  densits  of  the  two  parts,  on 
which  account  the  polarization  may  be  even 
more  pronounced  than  in  simple  refraction. 

Other  forms  of  energy  are  polarizable  also, 
and  it  is  supposable  that  polarization  may  be 
produced  by  the  intersection  of  densits  of 
different  manneries,  as,  heat  may  polarize 
light.  Analight  may  also  polarize  to  some 
extent  the  light  reflected  from  the  surface  of 
the  body  from  which  the  analight  emanates. 

Now,  when  we  consider  that  densits  have 
various  forms,  curved  and  plane,  ordinarily 
spherical,  but  variously  deformed  by  refrac- 
tion and  also  by  reflection  from  irregular 
surfaces,  we  see  how  the  lines  of  densitic 
intersection  may  be  different  in  different 
cases:  they  may  be  circular  or  elliptical  or 
otherwise  curved,  or  they  may  be  straight, 
and  different  parts  of  such  curves  have 
different  directions. 

In  considering  energizement  in  polarized 
light,  the  direction  of  the  denormalized 


190  Theories  of  Energy 

densition  must  be  taken  into  account,  for 
if  a  polarized  densitic  segment  impinge 
normally  on  a  surface,  the  densitional  move- 
ments will  not  be  normal  to  the  surface,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  polarized  densitic 
segment  may  impinge  on  a  surface  at  an 
acute  angle,  and  the  densitional  movements 
may  be  normal  to  the  surface. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  THEORY  OF  EDGETAL  DEFLECTION 

A  S  has  already  been  said,  the  diffraction  of 
**  light,  and  of  other  forms  of  energy  also, 
is  effected  by  the  centroatomic  energizement 
of  particles  in  the  medium  through  which  the 
energy  is  being  transmitted. 

This  is  not  deflection  of  light  from  a  luminous 
body,  nor  is  the  atmospheric  light  actually 
turned  out  of  its  course,  for,  that  light  being 
spherical  in  densitic  form,  portions  of  the  den- 
sits  naturally  proceed  behind  the  obstructing 
object,  but,  as  shown  by  the  following  experi- 
ments, certain  portions  of  the  densits  of  the 
daylight  are  deflected  when  the  light  passes 
by  two  edges,  and  certain  portions  of  the 
light  from  a  luminous  body  are  deflected  at 
edges  of  objects  by  which  the  light  passes. 
191 


192  Theories  of  Energy 

On  the  floor  by  a  window  through  which 
the  skylight  (not  sunlight)  is  entering  place 
a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and  on  the  paper, 
opposite  the  middle  of  the  window,  lay  a 
book  (an  inch  and  half  thick)  on  its  side,  with 
the  front  edges  turned  from  the  wall,  parallel 
therewith,  and  about  eighteen  inches  there- 
from, the  height  of  the  window  ledge  above 
the  floor  being  about  two  feet.  Raise  the 
lower  half  of  the  window,  so  its  lower  sash 
will  be  out  of  the  way,  and  draw  the  curtain 
until  its  lower  edge  is  about  eighteen  inches 
above  the  window  ledge.  The  curtains  of  any 
other  windows  to  the  room  should  be  closed. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  book  casts  a 
shadow  on  the  paper  about  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  wide,  and  a  close  study  of  the 
shadow  will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  shadow 
is  darkest  at  the  border,  which  fact  is  also 
shown  by  the  extension  of  the  border  portion 
at  each  end  as  a  narrow  dark  space.  By 
using  a  fine  thread  it  will  be  found  that  the 
edge  of  the  curtain,  the  edge  of  the  book,  and 
the  dark  space  are  in  line. 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    193 

About  three  eighths  of  an  inch  from  the 
border  of  the  shadow,  and  parallel  therewith, 
will  be  seen  a  narrow  bright  streak,  and  by 
using  the  thread  it  will  be  found  that  the 
edge  of  the  window  ledge,  the  edge  of  the 
book,  and  the  bright  streak  are  in  line. 

In  order  to  produce  either  the  dark  space 
or  the  bright  streak  with  the  skylight  the 
light  must  pass  by  two  edges,  as  by  the 
edge  of  the  curtain  and  the  edge  of  the  book, 
or  by  the  edge  of  the  window  ledge  and  the 
edge  of  the  book.  They  do  not  occur  when 
the  skylight  passes  by  one  edge  only,  but 
they  do  occur  when  the  sunlight,  or  the  light 
from  a  candle,  passes  by  a  single  edge. 

Place  a  sheet  of  white  paper  on  the  floor 
where  the  bright  sunlight  coming  through  a 
window  will  fall  on  it,  and  hold  a  ruler  at  a 
distance  of  about  three  feet  from  the  paper 
so  that  one  end  will  cast  a  shadow  on  the 
paper.  A  bright  streak  and  dark  space  will 
be  seen  at  each  side  of  the  shadow.  Hold 
the  ruler  vertically  a  few  inches  from  a  candle 
flame  so  that  one  edge  and  the  end  will  cast  a 

13 


194  Theories  of  Energy 

shadow  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  held  at  a 
proper  distance  beyond,  and  the  dark  space 
and  bright  streak  will  be  seen. 

In  the  case  of  the  sun,  the  bright  streak 
will  be  in  line  with  one  side  of  the  sun,  and 
the  dark  space  at  the  border  of  the  shadow 
will  be  in  line  with  the  other  side  of  the  sun. 
In  the  case  of  the  candle  flame,  the  bright 
streak  will  be  in  line  with  one  side  of  the 
flame,  and  the  dark  space  at  the  border 
of  the  shadow  will  be  in  line  with  the  other 
side. 

The  densitic  form  of  the  skylight  is  spheri- 
cal, the  densits  being  generated  at  the  at- 
mospheric particles,  and  when  the  spherical 
densits  pass  by  the  edge  of  the  window 
curtain  or  the  edge  of  the  window  ledge  they 
are  severed,  and  thereafter  each  densit  has  a 
definite  edge.  The  densits  of  the  skylight 
are  generated  at  all  points  outside  the  window, 
so  that  the  bourn  (56)  of  many  of  the  densits 
severed  at  the  curtain  is  a  plane  between 
the  edge  of  the  curtain  and  the  edge  of  the 
book,  and  the  bourn  of  many  of  the  densits 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    195 

severed  at  the  window  ledge  is  a  plane  be- 
tween the  edge  of  the  window  ledge  and  the 
edge  of  the  book,  the  edges  of  such  densits 
in  both  cases  passing  by  the  edge  of  the  book. 

It  is  probable  that  there  is  some  condition 
of  the  medium  (57),  such  as  greater  density, 
at  and  near  the  surface  of  an  object  (the 
density  gradually  increasing  toward  the 
surface  over  a  short  distance,  being  greatest 
at  the  surface),  which  has  a  turning  effect 
on  the  edge  portions  of  the  densits  passing 
through  the  same,  the  densitic  velocity 
decreasing  as  the  density  of  the  medium 
increases,  which  causes  such  edge  portions 
to  be  deflected  from  their  straight  courses. 
This  is  probably  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon. 

We  see  the  limb  of  the  sun  by  means  of  the 
edge  portions  of  the  hemispherical  densits 
coming  from  the  points  in  the  sun's  limb, 
and  we  see  the  sides  of  a  candle  flame  by 
means  of  the  edge  portions  of  the  hemi- 
spherical densits  coming  from  the  points  in 
the  sides  of  the  flame.  Such  being  the  case, 


196  Theories  of  Energy 

the  edges  of  many  densits  from  opposite 
portions  of  the  sun's  limb,  or  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  candle  flame,  will  pass  by  the 
edge  of  an  object  exposed  to  the  light  in 
either  case,  and  the  edge  portions  of  such 
densits  will  be  deflected  in  the  same  manner 
that  the  edge  portions  of  the  densits  of  the 
daylight  severed  at  the  window  curtain  and 
window  ledge  are. 

This  deflection  of  edge  portions  of  densits 
may  be  called  Edgetal  Deflection.  The 
bright  streak  may  be  referred  to  as  the  De- 
flection Streak,  and  the  dark  space  may  be 
referred  to  as  the  Deflection  Space. 

Leaving  the  curtain  as  it  is,  pull  the  window 
down  until  the  top  of  the  sash  is  three  or  four 
inches  below  the  lower  edge  of  the  curtain, 
and  a  narrow  dark  space  will  be  seen  between 
the  shadow  of  the  book  and  the  deflection 
streak,  and  parallel  with  the  same. 

This  dark  space  is  not  a  shadow  of  the 
window  sash,  because  the  skylight  has  all 
directions  and  does  not  give  a  definite  shadow 
in  any  single  direction.  It  is  a  deflection 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection     197 

space,  the  edge  portions  of  the  densits 
severed  at  the  edges  of  the  window  sash 
being  deflected  in  toward  the  shadow  of 
the  book,  making  a  well  illuminated  strip 
along  its  border,  and  leaving  the  dark  space. 

In  the  same  manner  the  deflection  space 
along  the  border  of  the  shadow  of  the  book 
results  from  the  light  being  deflected  into 
the  shadowed  field,  making  the  back  portion 
of  the  shadowed  field  lighter  than  the  front 
portion. 

The  deflection  streak  is  produced  at  the 
expense  of  the  illuminated  field  beyond,  but 
owing  to  the  general  illumination  of  that 
field,  the  slight  loss  of  light  from  it  is  not 
detectable,  evidently. 

When  light  from  an  aperture  passes  by  the 
side  of  an  object,  a  narrow  bright  streak  and 
dark  space  may  be  seen  near  the  margin  of 
the  shadow  on  the  screen  on  which  the 
light  falls,  and  if  any  of  the  light  come  from 
the  side  of  a  flame,  the  relation  between 
the  side  of  the  aperture  and  the  side  of  the 
object  being  right,  several  streaks  and  spaces 


198  Theories  of  Energy 

may  be  seen,  for,  these  being  deflection 
streaks  and  deflection  spaces,  not  only  do 
the  edges  of  the  aperture  produce  densitic 
edges,  but  the  hemispherical  densits  from 
the  side  of  the  flame  have  edges,  and  the  edge 
portions  of  some  of  such  densits  may  be 
deflected  at  the  side  of  the  aperture,  and  the 
edge  portions  of  others  may  be  deflected  at 
the  side  of  the  object. 

These  bright  streaks  and  dark  spaces 
are  commonly  referred  to  as  diffraction 
bands,  and  they  are  supposed  to  be  due 
to  interference  in  the  diffracted  light 
(58),  but,  as  we  have  seen,  they  are  not  so 
produced. 

Interference  may  occur  between  the  den- 
sits of  diffracted  light,  being  the  light  of 
atmospheric  particles,  but  the  lines  of  vitia- 
tion are  extremely  fine,  and  only  under 
certain  conditions  is  the  effect  apparent. 
The  effect  of  interference  between  densits 
of  the  daylight,  which  is  the  same  as  dif- 
fracted light,  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
experiment : 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    199 

On  one  side  of  a  small  piece  of  window 
glass  spread  with  a  knife  some  thick  black 
paint  (artists'  paint,  contained  in  a  tube). 
Make  a  slit,  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  in  the 
paint  with  the  point  of  a  pin — a  single 
scratch. 

Upon  looking  through  the  slit  at  the  bright 
sky,  holding  the  slit  close  to  the  eye,  with  the 
eye  wide  open,  so  the  eyelashes  will  not 
interfere,  hundreds  of  fine  dark  parallel 
lines  will  be  seen.  If  the  experiment  is 
properly  performed  the  individual  lines  can 
be  seen. 

These  are  undoubtedly  lines  of  densitic 
vitiation,  caused  by  interference  between 
densitic  segments  of  the  daylight,  as  illus- 
trated in  Drawing  C,  in  which  dots  A,  B, 
and  so  on  represent  atmospheric  particles, 
the  space  C  represents  the  slit,  and  the  arcs 
at  D  represent  segments  of  densits  generated 
at  the  atmospheric  particles  and  which 
have  passed  through  the  slit,  the  straight 
lines  between  the  dots  and  arcs  being  bournal 
lines  (see  note  56),  representing  the  courses 


2OO 


Theories  of  Energy] 


along    which    these     segments    have    pro- 
ceeded. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  angularity 
between  these  segments,  on  account  of  which 


DRAWING  C. 

they  intersect  each  other,  causing  densitic 
interference  and  vitiation,  as  well  as  densitic 
concordance  and  intension. 

This  experiment  affords  further  proof  of 
the  theory  of  energizement,  for  it  shows 
that  the  densits  of  the  daylight  are  generated 
at  the  atmospheric  particles,  being  spherical 
in  form. 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    201 

The  lines  can  also  be  seen,  but  not  so 
clearly,  by  looking  through  the  slit  at  a 
candle  flame  or  other  light  (59). 

LATERAL  STRIPES.  Upon  looking  through 
a  narrow  slit  at  a  light,  coloured  stripes  will 
be  seen  at  the  sides  of  the  light,  and  these 
are  commonly  referred  to  as  diffraction 
bands  also  (60),  but,  as  will  be  seen,  they  do 
not  result  from  interference  in  diffracted 
light,  and  so  it  is  more  appropriate  to  call 
them,  simply,  Lateral  Stripes. 

In  a  room  otherwise  dark,  look  at  a  candle 
flame  through  the  slit  in  the  paint  on  the 
glass  made  with  the  point  of  a  pin.  With  the 
glass  at  a  distance  of  a  foot  from  the  flame, 
laterally  extending  streamers  of  white  light 
will  be  seen,  and  near  the  flame,  at  each  side, 
will  be  seen  two  or  three  sets  of  narrow 
stripes,  each  set  containing  a  green  and  a 
purple  stripe,  the  green  on  the  side  toward 
the  flame,  and  the  purple  on  the  other  side. 
Each  set  has  an  outline  similar  to  that  of  the 
flame,  which  tapers  toward  the  top  and 
bottom,  so  that  there  are  intervening  dark 


2O2  Theories  of  Energy 

spaces  at  the  top  and  bottom,  the  middle 
portions  overlapping  at  this  distance. 

As  the  distance  between  the  flame  and 
glass  is  increased,  the  stripes  and  spaces 
become  wider,  and  the  flame  becomes  wider, 
and  red  borders  appear  at  its  sides. 

Change  in  the  distance  between  the  eye 
and  the  glass  does  not  affect  the  stripes. 

The  eye  may  be  moved  to  one  side  until 
the  flame  cannot  be  seen,  and  yet  stripes 
on  one  side  can  be  seen. 

Make  a  wider  slit  in  the  paint  by  dragging 
the  head  of  a  pin  through  it,  after  the  manner 
of  dragging  a  hoe,  and  upon  looking  through 
this,  with  the  glass  about  four  inches  from 
the  flame,  white  lateral  streamers  will  be 
seen,  but  there  will  not  be  any  stripes.  With 
the  glass  a  foot  from  the  flame  there  will  be 
seen  at  each  side  of  the  flame,  and  near 
it,  two  or  three  narrow  streaks  of  light, 
with  dark  spaces  between,  and  as  the  distance 
between  the  flame  and  glass  is  increased 
these  streaks  become  wider  and  the  green 
and  purple  stripes  become  distinct  in  them. 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    203 

The  lateral  streamers  will  also  be  seen,  and, 
especially  with  the  glass  at  a  distance  of 
two  feet  from  the  flame,  it  will  be' seen  that 
the  streamers  are  striped  (in  addition  to  the 
stripes  already  mentioned),  the  stripes  being 
rather  indistinct. 

If  the  slit  be  turned  obliquely,  the  stripes 
remain  vertical,  parallel  with  the  flame,  which 
shows  a  relation  between  the  stripes  and  the 
principal  image  of  the  flame,  which  of  course 
is  vertical,  however  the  slit  may  be  turned. 
If  the  stripes  were  the  result  of  interference 
in  diffracted  light,  they  would  be  parallel 
with  the  slit  at  all  times. 

The  lateral  stripes  cannot  be  seen  on  a 
screen  back  of  the  slit,  which  shows  that  the 
phenomenon  is  produced  in  the  eye,  and  the 
reasonable  explanation  is  that  the  stripes  are 
caused  by  deflected  edge  segments  of  densits 
being  internally  reflected  in  the  lens  of  the 
eye,  and  this  conclusion  is  supported  by  the 
following  experiment : 

Hold  the  end  of  a  slender  opaque  object, 
such  as  an  unsharpened  lead  pencil,  hori- 


2O4  Theories  of  Energy 

zontally  in  front  of  the  candle  flame  and 
half  way  across  the  flame,  and  upon  looking 
through  the  slit  made  with  the  head  of  the 
pin  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pencil  produces 
effects  on  both  sides  of  the  flame.  The 
effects  can  be  best  seen  with  the  glass  about 
two  feet  from  the  flame. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  stripes  over 
(extending  across)  the  pencil,  and  that  while 
there  are  stripes  in  line  with  the  pencil  on 
the  other  side  of  the  flame,  the  spaces  between 
them  are  wider  and  darker  than  above  and 
below.  It  looks  like  a  shadow  of  the  pencil 
extending  on  the  other  side  of  the  flame. 

The  colours  of  the  stripes  over  the  pencil 
and  in  line  therewith  on  the  other  side  of 
the  flame  are  much  more  distinct  than  are 
the  colours  above  and  below,  the  stripes 
above  and  below  being  much  paler,  as  a 
result  of  the  coincidence  of  colours  nearly 
complementary. 

The  stripes  over  the  pencil  are  not  in  line 
with  those  above  and  below,  and  the  inner 
set  of  stripes  is  within  the  line  of  the  flame. 


Theory  of   Edgetal  Deflection    205 

The  explanation  of  this  evidently  is  that, 
the  stripes  being  produced  by  internally 
reflected  edge  segments  of  densits  in  the  lens 
of  the  eye,  since  the  lens  is  convexo-convex,  a 
densitic  segment  deflected  back  of  the  iris 
at  one  side  of  the  pupil  will  be  internally 
reflected  several  times  in  the  half  of  the  lens 
on  that  side,  and  it  will  then  be  internally 
reflected  backward  across  the  centre  into 
the  other  half  of  the  lens,  where  it  will  be 
internally  reflected  several  times. 

Of  course  some  of  the  internally  reflected 
light  escapes,  as  it  were,  from  the  lens  at 
each  reflection,  and  so  some  of  the  light  from 
the  reflections  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
lens  reaches  the  retina  within  the  area 
where  the  flame  is  imaged,  the  stripes  seen 
over  the  pencil  within  the  line  of  the  flame 
being  so  produced. 

The  stripes  seen  over  the  pencil  are  pro- 
duced by  internal  reflections  backward  from 
the  other  side  of  the  lens,  and  the  stripes  which 
are  cut  out  on  the  other  side  of  the  flame  are 
produced  by  internal  reflections  backward 


206  Theories  of  Energy 

across  the  centre  of  the  lens  from  the  side 
on  which  the  pencil  is,  but  that  light  being 
now  obstructed  by  the  pencil,  such  internal 
reflections  do  not  occur;  hence  the  dark 
spaces. 

It  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  also,  that  the 
colours  are  segregated  by  the  lens,  just  as  a 
raindrop  segregates  the  colours  of  the  rainbow, 
the  light  being  internally  reflected  in  the 
raindrop. 

The  fact  that  lateral  stripes  on  one  side 
can  be  seen  when  the  flame  is  out  of  sight, 
the  eye  being  to  one  side,  shows  that  the  edge 
portions  of  the  densits  from  the  side  of  the 
flame  are  deflected  into  the  eye  from  the 
side  of  the  slit  toward  the  eye,  and  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  these  narrow  segments,  deflected 
at  the  edge  of  the  iris  and  internally  reflected 
in  the  lens,  produce  the  lateral  stripes. 

A  liquid  is  evidently  more  dense  at  and 
near  a  solid  surface,  the  same  as  a  gas  is. 
That  there  is  attraction  between  solid  matter 
and  adjacent  liquid  is  shown  by  the  meniscus 
which  is  seen  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid  against 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    207 

a  solid,  and  such  attraction  must  cause  con- 
densation of  the  attracted  liquid. 

The  angle  of  incidence  of  the  densits  on 
the  eye,  and,  consequently,  of  the  deflected 
segments  on  the  lens,  changes  with  the 
changing  of  the  distance  between  the  flame 
and  the  slit,  which,  evidently,  accounts  for 
the  different  effects  at  different  distances. 

Undoubtedly  some  of  the  light  entering 
into  the  streamers  is  generated  by  the  atmos- 
pheric particles  between  the  flame  and  the 
slit,  because  such  particles  are  energized 
by  the  candlelight,  as  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  fine  lines  of  vitiation  can  be  seen 
when  looking  through  the  slit  at  the  flame, 
the  same  as  when  looking  at  the  clear  sky, 
as  heretofore  explained. 

In  a  preceding  chapter  the  spurious  star- 
disk  was  mentioned,  and  the  phenomenon 
was  said  to  be  due  to  internal  reflection  in  the 
lens  of  the  telescope.  The  explanation  com- 
monly given  is  that  light  cannot  be  focussed 
to  a  geometrical  point. 

Undoubtedly  there  is  a  limit  to  the  extent 


208  Theories  of  Energy 

to  which  a  densitic  segment  can  be  reduced, 
but  since  the  size  of  the  spurious  disk  is 
different  with  lenses  of  different  sizes,  the 
larger  the  lens,  the  smaller  the  disk,  it  follows 
that  the  spurious  disk  to  some  extent  depends 
upon  something  which  takes  place  in  the  lens. 

The  spurious  disk,  as  seen  with  the  tele- 
scope, is  surrounded  by  several  rings,  which 
are  probably  deflection  streaks,  produced  in 
the  eye,  as  shown  by  the  following  experi- 
ment, which  also  throws  some  light  upon  the 
cause  of  the  spurious  disk: 

Spread  some  thick  black  paint  on  one  side 
of  a  piece  of  window  glass  about  an  inch 
square,  and  in  the  morning  when  the  sun  is 
about  30  degrees  above  the  horizon  place  the 
glass  on  edge  on  top  of  the  upper  sash  of  the 
lower  half  of  a  window  through  which  the  sun 
is  shining  at  an  angle  from  one  side,  the  glass  to 
be  held  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight,  and 
the  line  of  sight  to  be  about  45  degrees  from 
the  sun,  to  one  side.  With  the  painted  side 
of  the  glass  away  from  the  eye,  hold  the  eye 
about  an  inch  from  the  glass,  and  look 


V 

Theory  of   Edgetal  Deflection    209 

squarely  at  the  glass,  holding  the  eye  wide 
open,  so  the  sunlight  will  strike  the  cornea. 

A  bright  circular  image  will  be  seen  with 
dark  spots  floating  across  it.  The  outer 
portion  of  the  image-disk  appears  to  be 
made  up  of  a  number  of  concentric  rings, 
separated  by  very  fine,  dark  lines  (circles), 
showing,  evidently,  how  the  image-disk  is 
increased  in  size  by  the  addition  of  the 
rings,  which  are  probably  produced  by 
internal  reflections. 

It  will  also  be  seen  that  each  dark  spot  is 
surrounded  by  dark  rings,  which  are  probably 
deflection  spaces,  and  which  correspond  to  the 
deflection  streaks  seen  around  spurious  disks. 

If  the  glass  is  held  just  right  a  reflection  of 
the  image  may  be  seen  a  short  distance 
below,  and  multiple  images  of  the  dark 
spots,  due  to  internal  reflections,  may  be 
seen. 

DEFLECTION-POINTS  OR  STAR-POINTS.  The 
light  from  a  spherical  body,  such  as  a  star, 
is  full  of  densitic  edges,  the  limb  of  such  a 

body   being    seen    by   means    of    the    edge 
14 


2io  Theories  of  Energy 

portions  of  the  hemispherical  densits  gener- 
ated at  the  points  in  the  limb,  and  it  is  sup- 
posable,  from  what  we  have  seen  in  our 
experiments,  that  the  points  of  light  which 
seem  to  project  from  a  star  or  other  light  at 
night,  and  which  may  be  referred  to  as  De- 
flection-points or  Star-points,  are  due  to  the 
presence  in  the  light  of  densitic  edges,  the 
edge  portions  of  densits  being  severed  at 
the  iris,  and  the  densitic  segments  thus  formed 
being  deflected  back  of  the  iris. 

Each  person  sees  the  points  of  light  pro- 
jecting in  certain  directions,  and  he  always 
sees  them  projecting  in  such  directions, 
which  is  probably  due  to  slight  irregu- 
larities in  the  edge  of  the  iris,  recesses  or 
indentations  being  very  favourable  to  their 
production. 

TWINKLING.  Some  suppose  the  twinkling 
of  the  stars  to  be  due  to  interference  (61), 
while  others  consider  it  to  be  due  to  in- 
equalities in  the  density  of  the  earth's  at- 
mosphere, causing  parts  of  the  light  to  be 
refracted  this  way  and  that,  being  thereby 


Theory  of   Edgetal  Deflection    211 

intensified  at  places,  and  diminished  in 
intensity  at  other  places  (62). 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  fixed  stars, 
which  are  suns,  twinkle  much  more  than  the 
planets,  which  usually  do  not  twinkle,  al- 
though they  do  at  times,  and  this  leads  us 
to  consider  the  difference  between  a  planet 
and  a  sun  with  reference  to  the  radiation  of 
light. 

The  light  of  a  sun  is  generated  in  the 
photosphere  and  is  transmitted  through  the 
chromosphere,  while  the  light  of  a  planet 
(except  that  of  Mercury  and  Mars)  is  radi- 
ated by  its  atmosphere  without  being  trans- 
mitted through  the  same  to  any  great  extent. 
In  the  case  of  Mercury,  the  light  is  radiated 
by  the  solid  matter,  and  there  is  no  atmos- 
phere around  that  planet  for  the  light  to 
pass  through.  In  the  case  of  Mars,  most  of 
the  light  is  radiated  by  the  solid  matter,  the 
atmosphere  'being  very  rare,  and  the  planet 
being  weakly  energetic,  probably  no  variations 
of  any  consequence  occur  in  the  density  of  the 
atmosphere. 


212  Theories  of   Energy 

And  further,  since  the  planets  twinkle 
only  occasionally,  and  considering  their 
twinkling  to  be  principally  due  to  inequalities 
in  the  density  of  the  earth's  atmosphere, 
then  only  occasionally  does  the  earth's 
atmosphere  have  such  inequalities,  and, 
reasoning  by  analogy,  it  would  be  only 
occasionally  that  the  atmosphere  of  another 
planet  would  have  such  inequalities  in  its 
density  as  would  cause  twinkling,  so  that  if 
all  the  light  of  a  planet  were  transmitted 
through  its  atmosphere  it  would  twinkle 
only  occasionally. 

But  a  fixed  star,  being  a  sun,  is  continually 
in  a  high  state  of  energy,  and  bodies  of  gas 
are  being  ejected  at  numerous  points,  forming 
protuberances,  which  give  to  the  chromo- 
sphere a  very  irregular  form,  and  on  account 
of  the  ever  disturbed  condition  of  the  chro- 
mosphere, its  density  must  be  very  varied. 
And  the  fixed  stars  have  axial  rotation, 
so  that  the  light  which  reaches  the  eye  from 
such  a  star  at  succeeding  moments  has  come 
through  different  portions  of  the  star's 


Theory  of   Edgetal  Deflection    213 

chromosphere,  and  owing  to  the  inequalities 
in  the  density  of  the  chromosphere,  and  to  the 
irregularities  in  its  form,  the  light  is  differently 
refracted  through  different  portions,  causing 
fluctuations  in  the  light  which  reaches  the 
eye. 

Twinkling  usually  consists  in  the  drawing 
in  and  shooting  out  of  the  star-points,  and 
such  twinkling  is  probably  the  result  of 
interims  between  the  arrivals  in  the  eye  of 
edge  portions  of  densits  from  the  same 
portion  of  the  limb  of  the  twinkling  body, 
for,  as  we  have  seen,  star-points  are  evidently 
due  to  edgetal  deflection  in  the  eye. 

Owing  to  the  great  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  the  densitic  edges  in  such  a  star's  light 
must  be  quite  a  distance  apart,  while,  owing 
to  the  comparative  nearness  of  the  planets, 
the  densitic  edges  in  a  planet's  light  must  be 
much  closer  together,  so  close  together  that 
ordinarily  there  are  no  appreciable  interrup- 
tions in  their  arrival  in  the  eye. 

The  inequalities  and  irregularities  in  the 
star's  chromosphere  cause  the  edge  portions 


214  Theories  of  Energy 

of  the  densits  of  its  light  to  be  refracted  out  of 
their  true  courses,  so  that  they  reach  the 
eye  irregularly,  and  the  star-points  do  not, 
therefore,  come  and  go  regularly. 

Inequalities  in  the  density  or  moisture  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere  also  cause  the  edge  por- 
tions of  the  densits,  of  a  planet's  light,  as 
well  as  of  a  fixed  star's  light,  to  be  refracted 
into  and  out  of  the  line  of  vision,  and  when  this 
occurs  it  causes  irregularity  in  the  arrival 
of  the  edge  portions  in  the  eye,  and  this  is 
probably  the  principal  cause  of  the  twinkling 
of  the  planets,  increasing  the  twinkling  of 
the  fixed  stars  also. 

The  densits  whose  edge  portions  are  so 
refracted  come  from  the  limb  of  the  twinkling 
body,  and  in  the  case  of  a  planet,  which 
presents  a  face  of  such  extent  that  the  limb  is 
distinguishable  (which  is  not  so  with  a  fixed 
star),  the  twinkling  may  appear  to  be  a 
phenomenon  of  the  limb  only  (63). 

White  stars  twinkle  most,  and  red  stars 
twinkle  least,  which  may  be  explained  by 
saying  that  the  light  of  a  white  star  probably 


Theory  of  Edgetal  Deflection    215 

has  the  highest  polymannerism,  while  the 
light  of  a  red  star  probably  has  the  lowest, 
and  since  the  number  of  densitic  systems 
depends  largely  on  the  polymannerism,  the 
number  of  densitic  edges  in  the  light  depends 
largely  on  the  polymannerism  also. 

Twinkling  is  rated  by  the  number  of  scintil- 
lations per  minute,  the  greater  the  number, 
the  more  the  star  twinkles,  so  that  the  more 
numerous  the  densitic  edges  in  a  star's 
light  (if  not  so  numerous  as  to  prevent 
twinkling  entirely),  the  more  rapid  the  star 
twinkles.  Hence  the  difference  in  the 
twinkling  of  white  and  red  stars. 

According  to  Montigny's  observations, 
the  greater  the  number  of  dark  lines  in  a 
star's  spectrum,  the  less  it  twinkles;  the 
reason  evidently  being  that  the  greater  the 
number  of  dark  lines,  the  greater  the  number 
of  densitic  systems  eliminated  from  the 
star's  photospheric  light,  and,  consequently, 
the  fewer  the  densitic  edges  in  the  remaining 
light. 

Faint  stars  twinkle  less  than  brilliant  ones. 


2i6  Theories  of  Energy 

It  will  be  noticed  that  -the  faint  stars  have 
very  few  star-points.  The  faintness  may  be 
due  to  the  great  distance  of  the  star,  or 
it  may  be  due  to  the  smallness  of  the  star. 
If  it  is  due  to  great  distance,  the  densitic 
edges  in  the  star's  light  are  farther  apart 
than  they  would  be  at  shorter  distances, 
because  of  the  greater  expanse  over  which 
the  light  is  spread  out,  and  so  of  course 
the  twinkling  is  less.  If  it  is  due  to  smallness 
of  the  star,  the  densitic  edges  in  the  star's 
light  are  fewer  than  they  would  be  if  the  star 
were  larger,  because  the  number  of  densitic 
systems  in  the  light  of  a  body  depends  on  the 
number  of  particles  of  matter  engaged  in 
the  generation  of  the  light,  and  since  the 
edges  are  fewer,  they  must  be  farther  apart 
than  they  would  be  if  they  were  more  numer- 
ous, and  so  of  course  the  twinkling  is  less. 


NOTES 

(1)  The  word  Energial  is  used  herein  as  the  adjective 
of  the  noun  Energy,  meaning,  of,  by,  caused  by,  or  per- 
taining to,  energy;  as,  energial  propagation,  meaning,  the 
propagation    of    energy;    energial    actuation,    meaning, 
actuation  by  energy. 

(2)  The  term   Unparticulate  is  from  the  Latin  word 
Particula,  a  particle,  and  means,  not  in  the  form  of  particles. 
The  noun,  signifying  the  state  of  being  unparticulate, 
would  be  Unparticulation. 

The  term  Particulate,  meaning,  in  the  form  of  particles, 
is  now  in  use:  see  Soddy's  Radioactivity. 

(3)  Den'sit.     Adjective,  Densit'ic  (-al). 

The  movements  by  which  densits  are  caused,  considered 
either  as  to  a  single  system  of  densits  or  as  to  all  the 
densitic  systems  in  the  energy  of  a  body,  as  in  the  solar 
energy,  may  be  called  Densition,  as,  we  may  refer  to  the 
movements  in  the  ether  and  atmosphere  whereby  the  solar 
energy  is  transmitted  to  the  earth  as  densition. 

Adjective,  Densitional;  as,  densitional  movements. 

The  expression  Densitional  Normalization  relates  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  state  wherein  the  densitional  move- 
ments are  always  norma.1  to  the  densits,  except  in  polarized 
densition. 

(4)  Having  two  qualities,  positive  and  negative. 

(5)  "The  rays  we  have  heretofore  been  considering 
consist  of  positively  charged  particles  travelling  in  the 
direction  in  which  such  particles  would  be  moved  by  the 

217 


218  Notes 

electric  field  in  the  discharge  tube.  In  addition  to  these 
there  is  another  system  of  rays  travelling  in  the  opposite 
direction.  By  far  the  larger  portion  of  these  rays  are 
cathode  rays,  i.  e.,  negatively  charged  corpuscles  moving 
with  great  velocity.  .  .  .  The  fact  that  these  rays  travel 
with  high  velocities  away  from  the  cathode  and  thus  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  the  electric  forces  acting  upon  them 
makes  their  investigation  a  matter  of  considerable  interest. ' ' 
Rays  of  Positive  Electricity,  by  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson,  page  75. 

(6)  "The  heat  possessed  by  a  body  is   explained  as 
being  the  energy  possessed  by  it  in  virtue  of  the  motion  of 
its  particles.     Just  as  a  swarm  of  insects  may  remain 
nearly  at  the  same  spot  while  each  individual  insect  is 
energetically  bustling  about,  so  a  warm  body  is  conceived 
of  as  an  aggregation  of  particles  which  are  in  active  motion, 
while  the  mass  as  a  whole  has  no  motion."     Daniell's 
Principles  of  Physics,  page  48. 

(7)  The  Theory  of  Light,  by  Preston,  page  79. 

(8)  Densitic  curvature  is  the  spherical  curvature  of  the 
densits.     As  the  densits  proceed  they  expand,  and  the 
curvature   becomes   that   of  larger  spheres,   that   is,   it 
decreases. 

(9)  Densitic  angularity  is  the  angularity  between  the 
intersecting  densits  of  different  systems. 

(10)  Radioactive  Transformations,  by  Rutherford,  page 
16.  i£ 

(11)  Radioactivity,  by  Soddy,  page  115. 

(12)  The  action    by  which   energy   is   generated  and 
transmitted  may  be  called  Energial  Action. 

(13)  Inasmuch   as   we    commonly   look   upon   energy 
which  produces  chemical  effects  as  a  distinct  form,  making 
frequent  reference  to  it  as  a  form  of  energy,  chemical 
energy,  it  is  fitting  that  it  should  be  given  a  name,  and  the 
author  offers  the   name  Chemicity.     Adjective,  Chemic 
or  Chemical. 

(14)  Energial  character  is  the  character  or  quality  of 


Notes  219 

atomic  matter  on  which  depends  the  characteristic  energy 
of  any  particular  kind  of  matter,  and  on  which  depends  its 
peculiar  energizability.  Since  matter  becomes  energetic  in 
different  manners  and  methods  of  energy  under  different 
conditions,  we  may  say  that  its  energial  character  changes 
as  the  conditions  to  which  the  matter  is  subject  change. 

The  word  Energitia  may  be  used  to  mean  energial 
character.  Adjective,  Energitial,  as  energitial  modifica- 
tion. 

(15)  Adjective,     Manner'ic     (-al).     The     adverb     is 
accented  on  the  same  syllable. 

(16)  Man'-ne"-ry.    Adjective,  Man- ne '-rial.    The  adverb 
is  accented  on  the  same  syllable  as  the  adjective. 

(17)  The  present  theory  is  that  the  skylight  is  sunlight 
reflected  by  particles  of  atmospheric  dust,  it  being  thought 
that,  owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  particles,  only  the  blue 
light  is  reflected.     Hastings  and  Beach's  General  Physics, 
page  680. 

(18)  In  this  connection  Professor  Tait,  in  his  book  on 
Heat,  page  250,  says:  "This  prepares  us  to  see  that  the 
radiation  from  a  body  depends  upon  itself  alone  (*.  e. 
upon  its  constitution,  its  temperature,  the  nature  of  its 
surface,  etc.),  and  therefore  that  the  equilibrium  of  tempera- 
ture which  ultimately  obtains  among  bodies  within  an 
enclosure  which  contains  no  source  of  heat,  is  arrived  at, 
not  by  the  warmer  bodies  alone  radiating  to  the  colder, 
but  by  all  the  bodies  simultaneously  radiating,  each  to  an 
amount  depending  on  its  own  nature,  surface-conditions, 
and  temperature.     Also  that  equilibrium,  once  attained, 
is  maintained  by  the  same  process.     This  is  called  the 
Theory  of  Exchanges." 

(19)  The  present  theory  is  that  the  lights  of  the  moon 
and  planets  are  reflected  sunlight. 

(20)  Professor  Rowland,  to  whom  the  identification  of 
the  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum  is  principally  due,  counted 
about  14,200  lines  in  the  spectrum  of  the  sun,  and  about 


220  Notes 

5,700  in  the  ultraviolet  field,  and  the  thirty-six  elements 
so  far  determined  are  represented  by  less  than  one  third 
of  these  lines. 

(21)  Abbot,  in  his  book,  The  Sun,  page  98,  says:  "The 
lines  themselves  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  dark  except  by 
contrast.     If  seen  against  a  black  ground  they  would  be 
dazzlingly  bright."     And  see  note  on  page  81  of  Young's 
book,  The  Sun. 

(22)  "Even  under    the    conditions    of  our  terrestrial 
laboratories  we  find  cases  where  when  several  gases  and 
vapours  are  mingled  at  a  high  temperature,  certain  ones 
only  of  those  present  appear  in  the  spectrum  of  the  mixture, 
the  others  giving  no  indication  of  their  presence.     Then, 
too,  it  is  now  certain  that  the  same  substance  under  differ- 
ent conditions  may  give  two  or  more  widely  different 
spectra."     The  Sun,  by  Professor  Young,  page  89. 

(23)  The  term   Energial   Motion  means,  motion  of  a 
particle  or  body  of  matter  resulting  from  its  own  internal 
energy,  under  energizement  by  energy  of  other  matter,  the 
actuating   energy  acting   in  the  kinetic  method  in  the 
particle  or  body. 

(24)  The  term  Kinetic  Energy  means,  the  transatomic, 
uniqualital  energy  which  causes  motion  of  the  particles 
and  bodies  in  which  it  occurs. 

(25)  For  various   theories   of  gravity    see    article  by 
William   B.   Taylor  in  the  Report  of  the   Smithsonian 
Institution  for  the  year  1876,  pages  205  to  282.     Newton's 
ideas  as  to  the  nature  of  gravity  are  there  set  forth. 

Several  other  theories  have  been  advanced  since,  among 
which  is  a  theory,  advocated  by  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson  and 
others,  that  gravity  might  be  due  to  a  difference  in  the 
action  of  the  two  qualities  of  electricity,  the  supposition 
being  that  the  attractive  force  might  be  stronger  than  the 
repulsive. 

Maxwell  supposed  that  gravity  might  be  accounted 
for  by  his  electromagnetic  theory,  and  Osborne  Reynolds 


Notes  221 

attempts  to  account  for  it  by  his  theory  of  the  granular 
structure  of  matter. 

(26)  In  Warren's  Recreations  in  Astronomy  gravity  is 
referred  to  as  the  Will  of  God. 

(27)  There  may  be  some  exceptions.     The  revolution 
of  the  outermost  satellites  of  some  of  the  planets  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  the  direction  of  revolution  of  all 
other  bodies  of  the  solar  system  is  readily  explainable 
on  this  supposition.     The  matter  of  which  such  bodies 
are  composed  may  be  entirely  different  from  any  matter 
of  which  we  know. 

It  would  not  be  remarkable  that  some  matter  might  be 
energized  kinetically  by  the  positive  quality  of  gravity. 

(28)  It  is  probably  the  common  idea  that  electricity  is 
energy — see  article  on  Electricity  by  Charles  P.  Steinmetz 
in  Encyclopedia  Americana.     Some  consider  electricity  to 
be  a  potentiality  in  the  matter  of  the  medium  (the  ether), 
and  some  even  consider  it  to  be  matter — see  Barker's 
Physics,  page  538. 

Faraday  advanced  the  idea  that  electrification  is  due  to 
a  strained  condition  of  the  ethereal  medium  around  an 
electrified  body,  and  it  was  this  idea  that  gave  rise  to 
Maxwell's  electromagnetic  theory,  which  supposes  that 
electrification  is  an  action  in  the  medium  whereby  the 
potentiality  is  converted  into  energy,  which  action  is 
supposed  to  be  a  stress  consisting  of  tension  and  pressure, 
as  to  which  Maxwell  in  his  work  on  Magnetism  and  Elec- 
tricity, vol.  i.,  page  63,  says:  "From  the  hypothesis  that 
electric  action  is  not  a  direct  action  between  bodies  at  a 
distance,  but  is  exerted  by  means  of  the  medium  between 
the  bodies,  we  have  deduced  that  this  medium  must  be 
in  a  state  of  stress.  We  have  also  ascertained  the  character 
of  the  stress,  and  compared  it  with  the  stresses  which  may 
occur  in  solid  bodies.  Along  the  lines  of  force  there  is 
tension,  and  perpendicular  to  them  there  is  pressure,  the 
numerical  magnitude  of  these  forces  being  equal." 


222  Notes 

Under  that  theory  it  is  supposed  that  the  disturbances 
in  the  ether  produce  "waves, "  and  it  was  to  establish  this 
that  Hertz  performed  his  experiments. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  Hertz's  experiments,  or  any 
other  experiments,  do  not  establish  the  theory  of  ethereal 
stresses.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  of  any  such 
stresses,  and  it  is  impossible  to  conceive,  and  no  one  has 
yet  been  able  to  conceive,  how  energial  motion  can  be 
produced  by  such  stresses,  and  unless  the  modus  operandi 
of  a  theory  can  be  explained,  the  theory  is  very  unsatis- 
factory, to  say  the  least. 

When  it  is  admitted  that  energial  motion  is  caused  by 
the  energy  of  the  moving  matter,  the  theory  of  stresses 
becomes  superfluous. 

(29)  It  is  the  common  opinion  that  electricity  is 
transmitted,  both  through  media  and  along  conductors,  as 
"waves,"  this  having  been  established  by  the  experiments 
of  Hertz. 

In  his  experiments  Hertz  used  an  electric  oscillator,  in 
which  the  charges  oscillated  rapidly  across  the  spark  gap, 
and  he  used  a  sparking  device,  commonly  referred  to  as  the 
resonator,  with  which  to  detect  the  energy  in  the  air. 

With  the  oscillator  at  one  end  of  a  long  room  and  a 
large  sheet  of  zinc  at  the  other  end,  upon  carrying  the 
resonator  between  the  two,  he  found  that  there  were  places 
where  the  sparking  of  the  resonator  showed  maximum 
intensity,  with  places  between  where  there  was  no  sparking. 
The  distance  between  the  points  of  maximum  intensity 
was  about  six  feet. 

Experiments  made  by  others  show  that  the  maximum 
and  minimum  effects  occur  at  different  points  with  re- 
sonators of  different  sizes. 

Hertz  concluded  that  the  dead  places  were  due  to 
interference  between  the  "waves"  from  the  oscillator  and 
those  reflected  from  the  zinc. 

Hertz  also  showed  that  the  electric  "waves"  are  re- 


Notes  223 

flectible,  and  that  they  may  be  brought  to  a  focus  by 
concave  reflectors,  and  also  that  they  are  refrangible,  being 
refracted  by  a  prism  of  pitch. 

(30)  Rays  of  Positive  Electricity,  by  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson, 
page  7. 

(31)  One  theory  at  present  is  that  the  "waves"  are 
reflected  back  and  forth  between  the  earth  and  a  rare 
stratum    of    air    above.     Another    theory    (Fessenden's 
theory)  is  that  the  hemispherical  "waves"  slide  around  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 

(32)  As  to    the    conduction    of  electricity,   Professor 
Watson,  in  his  Text  Book  of  Physics,  page  673,  says:  "As 
far  as  we  are  able  to  tell,  however,  the  only  thing  that  does 
pass  is  energy,  this  energy  being  in  the  form  we  call  electri- 
city, but  of  the  nature  of  which  we  are  entirely  ignorant ; 
and  so  far  from  the  energy  being  transmitted  by  the  wire 
through  which  the  current  is  flowing,  the  accepted  belief 
nowadays  is  that  the  energy  is  really  transmitted  by  the 
insulating  dielectric  which  surrounds  the  wire,  and  that 
the  function  of  the  wire  is  to  direct  the  flow  of  energy." 

(33)  See  photographs  of  lightning   in  the  New  Inter- 
national Encyclopedia,  in  the  article  on  lightning. 

(34)  See  Crew's  General  Physics,  page  444,  and  South- 
all's  Principles  and  Methods  of  Geometrical  Optics,  page  16. 

(35)  There  is  need  of  a  name  for  the  colour  energy 
which  gives  vision  of  objects,  and  the  author  offers  the 
name  Analight  (Ana,  back),  being  the  light  which  comes 
back  from  matter  on  which  light  falls. 

(36)  The  pieces  of  glass  may  be  about  four  inches 
square  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  but  it  may  be  easier 
to  get  them  together  if  one  is  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick. 
In  putting  the  glasses  together  start  the  edge  of  one  over 
the  edge  of  the  other,  pressing  the  two  together  tightly 
with  the  thumbs  and  forefingers,  and  gradually  slip  one 
over  the  other.     When  they  have  gripped  firmly  and 
cannot  be  easily  slipped  over  each  other,  place  one  edge 


224  Notes 

on  the  knee  and  hammer  the  other  edge  with  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  pressing  the  glasses  together  tightly  at  the 
point  of  contact.  When  so  in  contact  the  glasses  cling 
together  with  great  force,  under  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  will  remain  until  forcibly  taken  apart. 

The  author  has  obtained  perfect  contacts  of  several 
square  inches  in  area. 

Newton's  rings  occur  around  the  place  of  contact,  and 
an  excellent  opportunity  is  afforded  for  studying  them. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  innermost  ring,  the  white 
portion  to  be  seen  at  the  contact  boundary.  It  has  the 
appearance  of  an  impalpable  powder,  and  by  turning  one 
glass  on  the  other  slightly  the  whiteness  may  be  broken 
up  to  some  extent,  being  drawn  out  into  little  tongues. 
The  explanation  probably  is  that  the  atoms  of  the  air  are 
energized  centroatomically. 

A  powerful  microscope  might  reveal  something  as  to  the 
atoms. 

(37)  Wood's  Physical  Optics,  page  40. 

(38)  The  Theory  of  Light,  by  Preston,  page  80. 

(39)  The  particular  frame  of  energy  in  a  particle  or 
body  of  matter  at  any  particular  time,  depending  on  the 
quality  of  the  energy,  the  relation  of  the  qualities  as  to 
preponderance,   the   intensity,   the  mannerism,  and   the 
method,  may  be  called  the  energial  Status  of  the  matter. 

(40)  Daniell's  Principles  of  Physics,  page  485. 

(41)  From   the  Greek  word  Chloros,  greenish  yellow. 
This  colour  occurs  in  the  spectrum  after  the  yellow,  being 
seen  only  when  the  green  is  absent.     It  is  a  greenish 
yellow,  the  yellow  of  the  spectrum  blending  into  it.     It 
may  be  seen  by  looking  through  the  prism  at  the  lower 
edge  of  a  sheet  of  white  paper  on  a  black  background. 

(42)  From  the  Greek  word  Glaukos,  greenish  blue  or 
bluish  grey.     This  colour  occurs  in  the  spectrum  before  the 
blue,  being  seen  only  when  the  green  is  absent.     It  is  a 
light  greenish  blue  or  grey,  blending  into  the  blue.     It  may 


Notes  225 

be  seen  by  looking  through  the  prism  at  the  upper  edge  of  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  on  a  black  background.  The  word 
is  now  in  use. 

(43)  This  classification   as  to   quality  has  been  made 
after  a  careful  study  of  certain  phenomena  indicative  of  the 
qualities  of  the  two  sets  of  colours.     The  experiments  of 
Sir  J.  J.  Thomson  are  also  determinative  of  the  classifica- 
tion, as  shown  by  the  following:  "The  contrast  between 
the  colour  of  light  due  to  the  positive  rays  and  that  due  to 
the  cathode  [negative]  rays  is,  when  some  gases  are  in  the 
tube,  exceedingly  striking.     Of  all  the  gases  I  have  tried 
for  this  purpose  neon  gives  the  most  striking  results,  for 
with  this  gas  the  light  due  to  the  positive  rays  is  a  most 
gorgeous  red,  while  that  due  to  the  cathode  rays  is  a  pale 
blue;  with  helium  the  positive  rays  give  reddish  light, 
while  that  due  to  the  cathode  rays  is  green.  .  .  .  With 
German  glass  the  positive  and  cathode  rays  both  produce 
a  greenish   phosphorescence,  though   the   greens  are   of 
different  shades.     With  some  substances  the  contrast  is 
much  more   striking,   for  example,   with   fused   lithium 
chloride  the  phosphorescence  produced  by  the  positive 
rays  is  an  intense  red  .  .  .  the  phosphorescence  due  to  the 
cathode  rays  is  a  pale  blue."     Thomson's  Rays  of  Positive 
Electricity,  pages  2  and  3. 

(44)  Wood's  Physical  Optics,  page  10. 

(45)  The  fact  that  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  blue  paints 
gives  green  instead  of  white  is  commonly  explained  by 
saying  that  the  blue  matter  absorbs  the  red,  orange,  and 
yellow  out  of  the  white  light,  and  that  the  yellow  matter 
absorbs  the  blue,  indigo,  and  violet  out  of  the  white  light, 
only  the  green  being  left.     Watson's  Text  Book  of  Physics, 
page  567. 

If  this  were  true  there  could  not  be  any  yellow  and  blue 
matter  under  white  light,  because,  since  the  yellow  matter 
would  not  absorb  the  green  light,  the  yellow  matter  would 
always  be  greenish  yellow,  and,  since  the  blue  matter 


226  Notes 

would  not  absorb  the  green  light,  the  blue  matter  would 
always  be  greenish  blue. 

(46)  Densitic  incidence  is  the  impinging  of  densits  on 
the  surface  of  a  body  of  matter,  and  as  to  any  part  of  a 
densit  the  incidence  is  either  normal  or  angular,  being 
normal  when  the  normal  line  to  the  surface  at  the  point  of 
incidence  is  parallel  with  the  line  of  propagation  of  the 
part  of  the  densit  having  incidence  at  such  point,  and  being 
angular  when  such  lines  are  not  parallel.     As  to  the  eye, 
densitic  incidence  refers  especially  to  the  part  of  the  densit 
reaching  the  eye  first. 

(47)  In  the  spectrum  produced  on  the  screen  or  piece  of 
paper  by  the  sunlight,  as  in  the  experiment  described,  the 
blue- violet  set  of  colours  is  on  the  side  corresponding  to  the 
base  of  the  prism,  and  the  red-yellow  set  is  on  the  side 
corresponding  to  the  apex  of  the  prism,  while  when  we  look 
through  the  prism  at  a  strip  of  white  paper  the  blue- violet 
set,  as  we  have  seen,  is  on  the  side  corresponding  to  the 
apex  of  the  prism,  and  the  red-yellow  set  is  on  the  side 
corresponding  to  the  base. 

This  difference  in  the  positions  of  the  colours  in  the 
two  cases  is  due  to  the  difference  in  the  densitic  incidence 
on  the  eye,  the  hemispherical  densits  emanating  from  the 
points  in  the  paper  having  different  incidence  than  the 
densitic  segments  which  reach  the  eye  directly  from 
the  prism  when  looking  through  it. 

Attention  is  called  to  this,  because  here  we  have  addi- 
tional proof  of  the  theory  of  energizement. 

In  Drawing  D  let  A  represent  a  luminous  body  from 
which  white  light  is  emanating,  and  let  the  arcs  at  B  re- 
present a  system  of  densits  of  white  light  generated  at  a 
point  in  the  body  A,  which  system,  we  will  suppose,  in- 
cludes a  red,  yellow,  chloro,  glaucous,  blue,  and  a  violet 
densit.  Let  C  and  D  be  obstructions,  between  which  a 
small  segment  of  the  light  may  pass,  in  order  that  we  may 
have  segments  of  definite  size  to  deal  with,  and  let  the  arcs 


Notes 


227 


at  E  represent  the  densitic  segments,  which  segments  will 
impinge  on  the  prism  between  the  points  F  and  G.  The 
solid  straight  lines  through  and  beyond  the  prism  are 
bournal  lines  (see  note  56)  of  the  red  densit,  and  the  dotted 


DRAWING  D. 


straight  lines  are  bournal  lines  of  the  violet  densit,  the 
courses  of  the  other  densits  being  between  those  of  the  red 
and  violet.  Let  the  curves  R,  Y,  C,  G,  B,  and  V  (being 
the  initial  letters  of  the  names  of  the  colours)  represent 
the  segments  after  transmission  through  the  prism. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  angularity  between  the 
segments,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  all  overlap  between 


228  Notes 

the  lower  edge  of  the  red  segment  and  the  upper  edge  of  the 
violet  segment,  and  yet  the  overlapping  portions  have 
different  incidences  on  the  eye,  the  straight  lines  from  the 
segments  to  the  eye  being  the  lines  of  normal  incidence. 
The  colours  would  therefore  be  seen  separately  in  the 
directions  of  the  lines  of  normal  incidence,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  so  that  the  violet  would  be  the  uppermost  colour, 
corresponding  to  the  apex  of  the  prism,  and  the  red  would 
be  the  lowermost  colour,  corresponding  to  the  base  of 
the  prism. 

Now  suppose  a  white  screen,  HI,  to  be  placed  so  as 
to  receive  the  densits.  That  portion  of  the  screen  on 
which  portions  of  all  the  densits  fall  would  be  white, 
and  on  the  screen  the  order  of  the  colours  would  be  the 
reverse  of  what  it  is  when  they  are  seen  through  the 
prism,  the  red  on  the  screen  corresponding  to  the  apex 
of  the  prism,  and  the  violet  corresponding  to  the 
base. 

The  order  in  which  the  colours  appear  on  the  screen,  and 
the  fact  that  the  colours  on  the  screen  can  be  seen  from 
all  directions  in  front  of  the  screen,  clearly  show  that  the 
screen  is  energized  centroatomically,  and  that  a  system 
of  hemispherical  densits  is  generated  at  each  point  in  it 
where  the  colours  appear. 

(48)  The  motion  of  the  radiometer  is  caused  by  the 
black   matter   being   energized   in   the   kinetic   method, 
repulsively,  by  some  of  the  manners.     No  light  energy 
comes  from  the   black  matter,  which  is  allomannerially 
energized,  and  the  white  matter  is  energized  centroatomi- 
cally by  all  the  manners  of  the  light. 

(49)  "And  of    these    components — the   one  vibrating 
in  the  plane  of  free  transmission,  and  the  other  at  right 
angles  to  that  plane — the  former  is  transmitted,  while  the 
latter  is  extinguished  by  absorption,  its  energy  being  con- 
verted into  heat."     Daniell's  Principles  of  Physics,  page 
516. 


Notes  229 

(50)  As  to  this    experiment    Professor    Edser,  in  his 
Light  for  Students,  page  325,  says:     "This  experiment 
proves  that  light   does  not   consist  of  compressional  or 
longitudinal  waves,  for  it  is  inconceivable  that  a  rotation 
of  the  second  crystal  about  the  direction  of  the  ray,  and 
therefore  about  the  direction  of  vibration,  should  extin- 
guish the  light.     After  passing  through  the  first  crystal 
the  light  waves  have  acquired  a  one-sidedness  with  regard 
to  the  direction  of  the  ray.     It  is  now  said  to  be  polarized. 
We  are  therefore  forced  to  conclude  that  the  direction 
of  displacement  in  the  light  wave  is  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  transmission." 

(51)  Edser's  Light  for  Students,  page  498. 

(52)  "A  ray  of  light  which  only  presents  longitudinal 
vibrations  must  exhibit  everywhere  the  same  characters 
around   its   line  of  propagation.     This   view,   therefore, 
since  it  is  incapable  of  explaining  the  laterality  of  the 
polarized  ray,  must  be  unconditionally  thrown  aside." 
The  Nature  of  Light,  by  Dr.  Lommel,  page  296. 

(53)  "In  such  cases  the  vibrations  would  rapidly  run 
through  a  great  variety  of  figures:  circles,  ellipses,  figures- 
of-eight,  and    non-reentrant    complex   harmonic    curves 
of  every  kind.     This  is  the  condition  of  common  light." 
Daniell's  Principles  of  Physics,  page  515. 

(54)  Wood's  Physical  Optics,  page  241. 

(55)  "By  increasing  the  number  of  plates  we  can  in- 
crease the  intensity  of  the  reflected  polarized  light,  and 
consequently  the  completeness  of  the  polarization  of  the 
transmitted  light,  seven  or  eight  being  sufficient  to  give 
us  nearly  complete  polarization  in  the  transmitted,  as  well 
as  in  the  reflected  beams."    Wood's  Physical  Optics,  page 
234. 

(56)  The  edges  of  a  system  of  segmented  densits  pro- 
ceed within  certain  bounds,  that  is,  the  densitic  field  has  a 
definite  boundary,  which  may  be  called  the  densitic  Bourn. 
When  the  densits  are  hemispherical  the  bourn  is  a  plane. 


230  Notes 

In  the  case  of  a  round  beam  of  light  with  parallel  sides  the 
bourn  is  cylindrical.  If  the  beam  is  conical,  either  diverg- 
ing or  converging,  the  bourn  is  conical  accordingly,  and 
so  on.  The  densitic  bourn  may  be  external  or  internal. 
The  bourn  of  light  which  passes  through  a  hole  is  external, 
and  the  bourn  of  light  which  passes  by  the  sides  of  an  object, 
such  as  a  flying  bird,  is  internal. 

The  lines  which  are  used  in  drawings  to  represent  den- 
sitic bourns  may  be  called  Bournal  Lines. 

(57)  Professor  Maclaurin,  in  his  work,  The  Theory  of 
Light,  Part  I.,  page  63,  refers  to  a  "layer  of  transition" 
at  the  boundary  between  two  media. 

(58)  Diffraction  bands  are  commonly  supposed  to  be 
due  to  interference  between  Huygens'  hypothetical  wave- 
lets, as  to  which  Professor  Wood,  in  his  Physical  Optics, 
page  151,  says:  "He  [Fresnel]  was  the  first  to  give  the 
true  explanation  of  the  phenomenon,  regarding  the  maxima 
and  minima  [of  light]  as  the  result  of  the  interference  of  the 
hypothetical  secondary  wavelets  diverging  in  all  directions 
from  these  portions  of  the  wave-front  not  blocked  off  by  the 
opaque  screen." 

(59)  In    the    following    experiment    with    the    same 
apparatus  lines  of  densitic  vitiation,  due  to  interference 
between  parts  of  light,  may  be  very  nicely  seen: 

Make  a  double  slit  in  the  paint  on  the  glass  by  drawing 
a  sharp  pointed  pen  across  the  paint,  pressing  down  very 
gently  so  that  the  points  of  the  pen  are  but  slightly  spread 
apart,  barely  separated. 

Upon  looking  through  this  double  slit  at  the  candle 
flame  from  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet,  a  number  (about 
eight)  of  parallel,  vertical  dark  lines  will  be  seen  extending 
through  the  flame,  being  lines  of  densitic  vitiation. 

Lateral  stripes  may  also  be  seen  at  either  side. 

By  turning  the  glass  so  that  the  slit  is  oblique,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  lines  of  vitiation  remain  vertical  and 
parallel  with  the  flame,  which,  of  course,  is  to  be  expected. 


Notes  231 

When  an  incandescent  electric  light  is  looked  at  through 
the  double  slit,  lines  of  vitiation  will  be  seen  along  each 
filament,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lines  are  much  finer 
and  closer  together  than  those  in  the  candle  light,  which 
evidently  indicates  that  the  densits  in  the  electric  light  are 
more  numerous  than  in  the  candle  light. 

(60)  Tyndall's  Light  and  Electricity,  page  358. 

(61)  Daniell's  Principles  of  Physics,  page  550. 

(62)  Wood's  Physical  Optics,  page  75. 

(63)  Daniell's  Principles  of  Physics,  page  550. 


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